Glyphosate (Roundup), when applied to the soil usually did not exert any significant effect on the total count of soil fungi after all periods of the experiment except after 6 and 10 weeks where the count was inhibited by the two doses used (1.84, 9.2 mg active ingredient/kg dry soil). When the herbicide was incorporated into the agar medium the count of total fungi, Acremonium strictum and Aspergillus fumigatus was significantly increased by the two doses used and of Penicillium glabrum by the high dose only. However, P. funiculosum was completely eliminated by the high dose. Oxygen consumption in soil treated with glyphosate was significantly inhibited by the high dose after 2 weeks and by the two doses after 6, 8 and 10 weeks. Glyphosate exerted two significant effects of stimulation and inhibition on the rate of the decay of stem segments of three plants at certain treatments of dose and time.

Adkins, S. W., S. Tanpipat, et al. (1998). "The influence of soil moisture content on glyphosate efficacy for the control of annual grasses in fallow land." Weed Research 38(2): 119-127

In order to determine the effects of soil moisture content on the efficacy of glyphosate, field experiments were conducted on three annual grass weeds (Avena fatua L., Urochloa panicoides Beauv. and Echinochloa colona L. (Link)). The soil moisture conditions were as follows: absence of rainfall using a rain-out shelter, natural rainfall and natural rainfall plus irrigation (2.5 cm week-1). These conditions were selected as they are representative of those in winter and summer fallows in the north-east grain region of Australia and had been previously identified by glasshouse experiments to be conditions that influence glyphosate efficacy. As predicted, efficacy of 360 g acid equivalent ha-1 glyphosate when applied to all three species was greatest under the irrigated and normal rainfall conditions and significantly less under the exclusion of rainfall condition. This response was the same for all near-isogenic lines of A. fatua and U. panicoides studied. As mild and severe forms of water stress are common events in the region, it is highly likely that soil moisture level will interfere with efficacy of glyphosate application in summer and winter fallows.

Ahmad, R., I. Liow, et al. (2005). Analysis of clonal diversity in giant reed (Arundo donax L.) using molecular markers (poster). Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 7 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Giant reed (Arundo donax) is an exotic perennial grass that has invaded riparian areas throughout California and many other regions of the world. Its success as an invasive species is at least partly attributable to its rapid clonal spread by rhizome extension and flood dispersal of plant fragments, since viable seed does not appear to be produced in the United States. To measure genetic diversity in this clonally propagated species, we genotyped 144 leaf samples of Arundo collected from California, Texas, Mississippi, Florida and France. For maximum genome coverage, we used two molecular marker systems: (1) ten SRAP (Sequence Related Amplification Polymorphism) markers, a gene-targeted marker system, and (2) fifteen transposon-based molecular markers, which primarily amplified non-coding regions of the genome. Our results indicate that, with the exception of a few minor differences, all tested samples are represented by a single clone despite the extreme geographical distance among the accessions. The lack of genotypic diversity in giant reed suggests biological control of the species could be successful.

Alferness, P. L. and Y. Iwata (1994). "Determination of glyphosate and (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid in soil, plant and animal matrices, and water by capillary gas chromatography with mass-selective detection." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 42(12): 2751-2759

A residue method for the determination of glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine, PMG) and its principal metabolite, (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid (AMPA), in soil, crops, animal products, and water was developed. PMG and AMPA were extracted from soil using a mixture of 0.25 M NH-4OH and 0.1 M KH-2PO-4, from crops with water, and from animal products with either 0.1 N HCl or 0.6% acetic acid. Extracts of crops and animal products were cleaned up on a cation exchange column. Soil extracts, purified extracts of crops and animal products, and water samples were directly reacted with a mixture of heptafluorobutanol and trifluoroacetic anhydride. Derivatized analytes were quantified by using capillary gas chromatography and a mass-selective detector operated in the selected-ion-monitoring mode. The limit of quantitation was demonstrated to be as low as 0.01 mg/kg for each analyte. For PMG, the mean recoveries from soil, crops, animal matrices, and water ranged from 90 to 100% with coefficients of variation (CV) ranging from 6 to 14%. For AMPA, the mean recoveries ranged from 89 to 103% with CVs ranging from 8 to 13%.

Alpert, P., F. T. Griggs, et al. (1999). "Riparian forest restoration along large rivers: Initial results from the Sacramento River Project." Restoration Ecology 7(4): 360-368

Restoration of riparian vegetation along large rivers is complicated by the patchiness of the habitat and by conflicts with the societal need to control flooding. The Sacramento River Project, led by The Nature Conservancy in northern California, is testing whether it is possible to restore native forest along a large river without removing flood control. We conducted a post-hoc analysis of monitoring data collected by the project on 1-4-year old plantings of 10 native trees and shrubs at five sites. Two questions of general interest were: Can one identify types of species or sites that are especially suitable for restoration in such riparian habitats? To what degree must sites be treated as mosaics of patches, with different types of patches that are suited to different species? Plant performance as measured by height was better in species of Salicaceae or in species planted as cuttings than in species of other families or in species planted as seedings or seeds. Three within-site factors, land form, soil depth to a buried layer of sand or gravel, and soil texture, affected the growth of several species, indicating that sites do need to be treated as patchy. However, there was little evidence that different species performed better on different types of patches. Instead, areas with deep or fine soils seemed to be favorable for a number of species. Results suggest that it is feasible to re-establish native trees and shrubs along large, regulated rivers, at least at certain sites for an initial period of several years with the aid of weed control and irrigation. Shallowly buried layers or lenses of gravel or sand are a hidden, fine-scale factor that can reduce plant growth on river terraces.

Anderson, B. W. and R. D. Ohmart (1985). Riparian Revegetation as A Mitigating Process in Stream and River Restoration. The restoration of rivers and streams : theories and experience. J. A. Gore. Boston, Butterworth Publishers: 41-80

Anonymous (2001). "Biological invasions." Issues in Science and Technology 18(2): 19

Anonymous (2003). "Eleven new species added to the State Weed List." Noxious Times 5(3): 1,3 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Anonymous (2003). "A look at a Draft of the California Noxious and Invasive Weed Action Plan." Noxious Times 5(4 (special issue)): 1-20 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Anonymous (2005). "California Conservation Corps attacks Arundo." Noxious Times 7(3-4): 18 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Anonymous (2005). "JK International, LLC provides new herbicide delivery system." Noxious Times 7(2): 15 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Anonymous (2005). "Noxious weed washer - mobile vehicle decontamination unit." Noxious Times 7(3-4): 17 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Anonymous (2005). "TNC’s Weed Information Management System (WIMS)." Noxious Times 7(1): 12 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Apple, L. L., B. H. Smith, et al. (1985). The Use of Beavers for Riparian-Aquatic Habitat Restoration of Cold Desert Gully-Cut Stream Systems in Southwestern Wyoming Usa. INVESTIGATIONS ON BEAVERS. G. PILLERI. BERNE, SWITZERLAND, BRAIN ANATOMY INSTITUTE: BERNE, SWITZERLAND. 4: 123-130

April, B. (2005). Control of invasive plants through biological mitigation for transportation projects. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 8 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

August, P. V., Joanne Michaud, Charles Labash, and Chistopher Smith (1994). "GPS for Environmental Applications: Accuracy and Precision of Locational Data." Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 66(1): 41-45

Babbit, B. (1998). Statement by the Secretary of the Interior on invasive alien species, National Weed Symposium. National Weed Symposium. Denver, CO, Bureau of Land Management

Baskin, Y. (1998). "Winners and losers in a changing world: global changes may promote invasions and alter the fate of invasive species." BioScience 48(10): 788

Global changes driven by human activity are affecting the ecosystem and exacerbating the problem concerning invasive species. Researchers have shown that the changing land utilization and proliferation of vectors that induces movement of species have the greatest contribution to the invasion problem.

Bautista, S. (1998). A Comparison of Two Methods for Controlling Arundo Donax. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 49-52 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Bautista, S. J. (1994). Riparian habitat, endangered species, and herbicide: cover all the bases during public involvement. Proceedings, annual Forest Vegetation Management Conference. Redding, CA: 166-170

Bell, C. E. (1998). Risks and Effects of Various Control Methods. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 43-46 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Bell, G. (1993). Biology and Growth Habits of Giant Reed (Arundo donax). Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, P. Frandsen and S. Douthit. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 1-6 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Bell, G. (1993). Re-vegetation of riparian habitat: hauling coals to Newcastle. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA: 55-60 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Bell, G. (1997). Ecology and management of Arundo donax, and approaches to riparian habitat restoration in Southern California. Plant Invasions: Studies from North America and Europe. Leiden, The Netherlands, Blackhuys Publishers: 103-113 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/arundo_ecology.html).

Blankinship, M. (2005). California’s new NPDES permit for aquatic herbicide use. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 8 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Bohn, T. and P.-A. Amundsen (2001). "The Competitive Edge of an Invading Specialist." Ecology 82(8): 2150

Introduced species represent major threats to native and natural biodiversity. On the other hand, biologists may increase the understanding of ecological interactions by following communities during establishment of exotic species. Accordingly, feeding ecology and habitat use were studied in native whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) and recently invading vendace (C. albula) in two lake localities situated 50 km apart within the subarctic Pasvik River system, northern Norway and Russia. Whitefish originally dominated the native fish communities of both lakes. The recent invasion and successive downstream expansion of vendace allowed comparisons between two sites: one in which the influence of the new potential competitor on the native fish species was weak, and one in which the influence was strong. In the downstream lake vendace was recorded for the first time at the time of the study, and only in small numbers, whereas in the upstream lake vendace had established a high population density and was the dominant fish species in the pelagic zone. No vertical segregation in pelagic habitat use was round between the two fish species in either lake. In the downstream lake both whitefish and vendace fed exclusively on zooplankton and had almost identical diets. In the upstream lake, in contrast, whitefish fed predominantly on zoobenthos and surface insects, while vendace fed mainly on zooplankton. Thus, the strong presence of vendace as a specialized planktivore reduced the availability of zooplankton as prey for the more generalist whitefish. The food segregation between the two fish species in the upstream lake was apparently interactive and caused by a strong asymmetrical competition for zooplankton, vendace being the superior species. The ecological consequences (including reduced zooplankton size and species diversity, alteration of the pelagic food web, and eutrofication as a possible cascading effect on the primary production) of the vendace invasion in the Pasvik watercourse are considerable, even after a few years, and are likely to proceed and intensify in the future.

Key words: asymmetric competition; Coregonus; diet overlap; fish invasion; interactive segregation; invasive species; Pasvik River system (northern Norway and Russia); pelagic zone, feeding ecology and habitat use; resource partitioning; species invasion.

Boose, A. B. and J. S. Holt (1999). "Environmental effects on asexual reproduction in Arundo donax." Weed research 39(2): 117-127 (http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3180.1999.00129.x).

Borjesson, E. and L. Torstensson (2000). "New methods for determination of glyphosate and (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid in water and soil." Journal of Chromatography A 886(1-2): 207-216

New methods were developed to determine glyphosate, N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine, and its major metabolite, (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid in groundwater and soil. The methods involve ligand-exchange, anioon-exchange and derivatisation and final identification and quantification by GC-MS. The limits of quantification in this experiment were 0.1 mug -1 for both compounds in water and 0.006 mug g-1 for both compounds in soil. Decomposition in soil and occurrence in groundwater of the herbicide glyphosate was studied after its application for weed control on a Swedish railway embankment.

Bossard, C. C., J. M. Randall, et al., Eds. (2000). Invasive plants of California's wildlands. Berkeley, University of California Press

Bowler, P. A. (1989). Riparian Woodland: An Endangered Habitat in Southern California. Endangered Plant Communities of Southern California, 15th Annual Symposium. A. A. Schoenherr, Southern California Botanists. 3: 80-97

Bright, C. (1999). "Invasive Species: Pathogens of Globalization." Foreign Policy: 50

Bussan, A. and W. Dyer (1999). Herbicides and Rangeland. Biology and Management of noxious rangeland weeds. R. P. Sheley, J. Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State Univiersity Press: 116-132 (http://teamarundo.org/control_manage/docs/herbicides_rangeland.pdf).

Contents Sect. I. Theory and Practice of Weed Management -- Introduction / R. L. Sheley, J. K. Petroff and M. M. Borman. 1. Impacts of Noxious Weeds on Ecologic and Economic Systems / Bret E. Olson. 2. Surveying, Mapping, and Monitoring Noxious Weeds on Rangelands / Douglas E. Johnson. 3. Coordinated Weed Management Planning / Tony Svejcar. 4. Economic Evaluation Procedures for Noxious Weed Management on Rangeland / Duane Griffith. 5. Integrated Weed Management on Rangeland / Roger L. Sheley, Susan Kedzie-Webb and Bruce D. Maxwell. 6. Preventing Noxious Weed Invasion / Roger L. Sheley, Mark Manoukian and Gerald Marks. 7. Early Detection and Eradication of New Weed Infestations / David L. Zamora and Donald C. Thill. 8. Grazing and Weeds / Bret E. Olson. 9. Biological Control of Noxious Rangeland Weeds / Linda M. Wilson and Joseph P. McCaffrey. 10. Herbicides and Rangeland / Alvin J. Bussan and William E. Dyer.

11. Revegetating Noxious Weed-Infested Rangeland / James S. Jacobs, Michael F. Carpinelli and Roger L. Sheley -- Sect. II. The Weeds. 12. Biennial Thistles / K. George Beck. 13. Canada Thistle / Don W. Morishita. 14. Cheatgrass / Jeffrey C. Mosley, Stephen C. Bunting and Mark E. Manoukian. 15. Common Crupina / Donald C. Thill, Cindy T. Roche and David L. Zamora. 16. Dalmatian and Yellow Toadflax / Sherry Lajeunesse. 17. Diffuse Knapweed / Ben F. Roche, Jr. and Cindy Talbott Roche. 18. Dyer's Woad / Erin G. McConnell, John O. Evans and Steven A. Dewey. 19. Meadow and Orange Hawkweed / Linda M. Wilson and Robert H. Callihan. 20. Leafy Spurge / Sherry Lajeunesse, Roger L. Sheley and Celestine Duncan / [et al.]. 21. Mediterranean Sage / Cindy Talbott Roche and Linda M. Wilson. 22. Medusahead / Heather C. Miller, David Clausnitzer and Michael M. Borman. 23. Oxeye Daisy / Bret E. Olson and Roseann T. Wallander. 24. Poison-Hemlock / Joseph M. DiTomaso. 25. Purple Loosestrife / Barbra Mullin.

26. Rush Skeletonweed / Roger L. Sheley, Joseph M. Hudak and Robert T. Grubb. 27. Russian Knapweed / Tom D. Whitson. 28. Snakeweeds / Tracy M. Sterling, David C. Thompson and Kirk C. McDaniel. 29. Sowthistles / Richard K. Zollinger and Robert Parker. 30. Spotted Knapweed / Roger L. Sheley, James S. Jacobs and Michael L. Carpinelli. 31. Squarrose Knapweed / Cindy Talbott Roche. 32. St. Johnswort / Gary L. Piper. 33. Sulfur Cinquefoil / Peter Rice. 34. Tansy Ragwort / Eric M. Coombs, Peter B. McEvoy and Charles E. Turner. 35. Whitetop / Roger L. Sheley and Jack Stivers. 36. Yellow Starthistle / Roger L. Sheley, Larry L. Larson and James S. Jacobs.

Busse, M. D., A. W. Ratcliff, et al. (2001). "Glyphosate toxicity and the effects of long-term vegetation control on soil microbial communities." Soil Biology & Biochemistry 33(12-13): 1777-1789

We assessed the direct and indirect effect of the herbicide glyphosate on soil microbial communities from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) plantations of varying site quality. Direct, toxic effects were tested using culture media and soil bioassays at glyphosate concentrations up to 100-fold greater than expected following a single field application. Indirect effects on microbial biomass, respiration, and metabolic diversity (Biolog and catabolic response profile) were compared seasonally after 9-13 years of vegetation control using repeated glyphosate applications in a replicated field study. Three pine plantations were selected to provide a range of soil characteristics associated with glyphosate binding (clay, Fe and Al oxide content) and site growing potential from the lowest to the highest in northern California. Glyphosate was toxic to bacteria and fungi from each plantation when grown in soil-free media. Culturable populations were reduced, as was the growth rate and metabolic diversity of surviving bacteria, by increasing concentrations of glyphosate. This toxicity was not expressed when glyphosate was added directly to soil, however. Microbial respiration was unchanged at expected field concentrations (5-50 mug g-1), regardless of soil, and was stimulated by concentrations up to 100-fold greater. Increased microbial activity resulted from utilization of glyphosate as an available carbon substrate. Estimated N and P inputs from glyphosate were inconsequential to microbial activity. Long-term, repeated applications of glyphosate had minimal affect on seasonal microbial characteristics despite substantial changes in vegetation composition and growth. Instead, variation in microbial characteristics was a function of time of year and site quality. Community size, activity, and metabolic diversity generally were greatest in the spring and increased as site quality improved, regardless of herbicide treatment. Our findings suggest that artificial media assays are of limited relevance in predicting glyphosate toxicity to soil organisms and that field rate applications of glyphosate should have little or no affect on soil microbial communities in ponderosa pine plantations.

CalFlora. "CalFlora Database." from http://www.calflora.org/index0.html.

The Calflora Database is a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing information about California plant biodiversity for use in Education, Research and Conservation. CalFlora is a comprehensive database of plant distribution information for California on critical issues related to plant diversity and change to plant diversity and change in distribution of native and exotic species.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. (2006). "California Noxious Weed Information Project." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxweedinfo/noxweedinfo_hp.htm.

The Noxious Weed Information Project (NWIP) is a part of Integrated Pest Control, a branch of Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services which is a division of the California Department of Food and Agriculture. Current activities include collecting and processing data on current weed management projects that are focused primarily on A-rated weeds. NWIP provides maps and other information for CDFA, biologists and the general public.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. (2006). "California Weed Management Areas." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/weedmgtareas/wma_index_hp.htm.

Weed Management Areas (WMAs) are local organizations that bring together landowners and managers (private, city, county, State, and Federal) in a county, multi-county, or other geographical area to coordinate efforts and expertise against common invasive weed species. The WMA functions under the authority of a mutually developed memorandum of understanding (MOU) and is subject to statutory and regulatory weed control requirements. A WMA may be voluntarily governed by a chairperson or a steering committee. To date, groups in California have been initiated by either the leadership of the County Agricultural Commissioner’s Office or a Federal Agency employee. WMAs are unique because they attempt to address agricultural (regulatory) weeds and “wildland” weeds under one local umbrella of organization. It is hoped that participation will extend from all agencies and private organizations. WMAs have printed weed I.D./control brochures, organized weed education events, written and obtained grants, coordinated demonstration plots, and instituted joint eradication, mapping, outreach, and other effective weed management projects.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. (2006). "EncycloWeedia." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/encycloweedia/encycloweedia_hp.htm.

Notes on Identification, Biology, and Management of Plants Defined as Noxious Weeds by California Law

California Department of Food and Agriculture - Pesticide Investigations Unit (2000). Control of Giant Cane in Riparian and Wetland Areas of Northern and Central California, California Department of Food and Agriculture (http://teamarundo.org/control_manage/DFG-EPAreport.html).

This project has three primary objectives: (1) to determine the best methods for giant cane control in northern and central California; (2) to educate the public regarding the giant cane threat; and (3) to gather information regarding giant cane’s current presence in northern and central California and its potential for further invasive spread in the region. These objectives were accomplished via the following four tasks:

1) the establishment of a giant cane control demonstration project; 2) the completion of an herbicide risk assessment for nontarget aquatic species; 3) the development of giant cane educational materials; and 4) the completion of a giant cane survey project for northern and central California.

California Environmental Resources Information System. (2006). "California Environmental Resources Information System (CERES) site on invasive species." Retrieved Nov. 3, 2006, from http://www.ceres.ca.gov/theme/invasives.html.

California Exotic Pest Plant Council (1993). Arundo Donax Workshop Proceedings. Arundo Donax Workshop Proceedings, Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

California Exotic Pest Plant Council (1998). Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, Ontario, CA, University of California Coorperative Extension, Imperial County (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

California Interagency Noxious and Invasive Plant Committee. (2006). "Noxious Times." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_hp.htm.

This publication, sponsored by the California Interagency Noxious and Invasive Plant Committee (CINIPC), provides agencies and local staff with information on noxious weed control throughout California. By providing news, policy information, and agency reports, the Noxious Times is an excellent resource for those interested in sharing information and coordinating efforts against noxious weeds.

California Interagency Noxious Weed Coordinating Committee. (2006, Nov. 2, 2006). "CALWEED DATABASE: California Noxious Weed Control Projects Inventory." from http://endeavor.des.ucdavis.edu/weeds/.

The California Interagency Noxious Weed Coordinating Committee is a group of sixteen State and Federal agencies meeting quarterly, in conjunction with stakeholders, to coordinate activities with respect to noxious weed control. A central project of the group has been to create an Internet accessible database, which acts as a clearing-house for noxious weed control projects in California. The database contains information on who is controlling which noxious weeds in California and what methods they are using. This information is searchable by keywords.

Projects which qualify for this database attempt to eradicate or reduce the number of noxious weeds in California. The emphasis of the database is on weeds considered noxious by the California Department of Food & Agriculture or a threat to wildlands by the California Exotic Plant Pest Council.

The projects in the Calweed Database have been incorportated into the Natural Resource Projects Inventory (NRPI).

California Watershed Funding Database. (2006, Nov. 3, 2006). "California Watershed Funding Database." from http://www.calwatershedfunds.org/.

Cal-IPC. (2006). "California Invasive Plant Council." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cal-ipc.org.

As a 501(c)3 nonprofit organization, Cal-IPC works with land managers, concerned citizens, and policy makers to protect the state from invasive plants.

Callaway, R. M. and E. T. Aschehoug (2000). "Invasive Plants Versus Their New and Old Neighbors: A Mechanism for Exotic Invasion." Science 290(5491): 521

Invading exotic plants are thought to succeed primarily because they have escaped their natural enemies, not because of novel interactions with their new neighbors. However, we find that Centaurea diffusa, a noxious weed in North America, has much stronger negative effects on grass species from North America than on closely related grass species from communities to which Centaurea is native. Centaurea's advantage against North American species appears to be due to differences in the effects of its root exudates and how these root exudates affect competition for resources. Our results may help to explain why some exotic species so successfully invade natural plant communities.

Carlisle, S. M. and J. T. Trevors (1986). "Effect of the herbicide glyphosate on nitrification, denitrification and acetylene reduction in soil." Water Air and Soil Pollution 29(2): 189-204

The effect of glyphosate on N2 fixation, denitrification, and nitrification in an agricultural soil was investigated. Effects of the pure herbicide and commerical formulation, Roundup (Monsanto Company), were compared in soil under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic C2H2 reduction was inhibited by high herbicide levels. Denitrification in non-amended soil was either unaffected (N2O reduction) or stimulated (NO3- reduction); in glucose-amended soil, N2O reduction was inhibited and NO3-reduction unaffected by both glyphosphate and Roundup. Roundup caused greater stimulation of N2O reduction than pure glyphosate; no other significant formulation effects were observed. Nitrification was inhibited by the two formulations. Ammonium oxidation were both influenced. Pure glyphosate was more inhibitory than Roundup. No toxicity to any of these activities should be seen at recommended field application rates of the herbicide.

Carlisle, S. M. and J. T. Trevors (1986). "Effect of the herbicide glyphosate on respiration and hydrogen consumption in soil." Water Air and Soil Pollution 27(3-4): 391-402

The effect of glyphosate on soil respiration and H2 oxidation in an agricultural soil was investigated. The effects of the pure herbicide and commercial formulation, Roundup (Monsanto Company), were compared in soil under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Both formulations stimulated O2 uptake as well as aerobic and anaerobic CO2 evolution. Roundup caused more stimulation than glyphosate under aerobic incubation conditions; the formulations had an equal effect on anaerobic CO2 evolution. Hydrogen oxidation was inhibited by both formulations in aerobic and anaerobic soil. Aerobic H2 oxidation was inhibited to the same extent by both formulations; Roundup had a stronger inhibitory effect on anaerobic H2 oxidation than did glyphosphate.

Carothers, S. W., G. S. Mills, et al. (1990). The Creation and Restoration of Riparian Habitat in Southwestern Arid and Semi-Arid Regions Usa. Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. Washington, D.C, Island Press: 351-366

Carpenter, B. (1995). "Biological nightmares: when exotic species invade a habitat, it can be ecologically disastrous." U.S. News & World Report 119(20): 85

Global commerce and travel has also led to a large increase in the number of invasive species in foreign habitats, which can wreak havoc in local ecosystems. The economic and environmental cost of this is huge, and it threatens already endangered species.

Carruthers, R. (2000). "Weed Control and the USDA Exotic and Invasive Weeds Research Unit." Noxious Times 2(4): 10-12 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Center for Invasive Plant Management. (2006). "Center for Invasive Plant Management." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.weedcenter.org.

The Center for Invasive Plant Management (CIPM) supports natural resource managers, scientists, and educators pursuing ecological approaches to invasive plant management.

Chakravarty, P. and L. Chatarpaul (1990). "Non-target effect of herbicides: I. Effect of glyphosate and hexazinone on soil microbial activity: Microbial population, and in-vitro growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi." Pesticide Science 28(3): 233-242

The effects of two herbides, glyphosate (as a 359 g litre-1 SL) and hexazinone (as a 50 g kg-1 granules) on soil microbial population, carbon dioxide evolution, and in-vitro growth of five species of ectomycorrhizal fungi were investigated. Glyphosate at 0.54 and 3.23 kg a.i. ha-1 and hexazinone at 1, 2 and 8 kg a.i. ha-1 did not reduce soil microbial population or carbon dioxide evolution in the long term (6 months). However, there was a significant short-term (2 months) effects of glyphosate on both fungal and bacterial counts at the 0.54 kg ha-1 treatment. In in-vitro tests, Cenococcum graniforme, Hebeloma crustuliniforme and Laccaria laccata were more susceptible to both herbicides than was Suillus tomentosus, which was, in turn, more susceptible than Paxillus involutus. The growth of all five ectomycorrhizal fungi was significantly reduced when subjected to concentrations above 50 .mu.l formulation litre-1 (glyphosate) or 50 .mu.g formulation litre-1 (hexazinone).

Chambers, J. C. and J. C. Korfmacher (2001). "Relationships between stream incision, riparian vegetation dynamics, and restoration potential in Great Basin watersheds." Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts 86: 68-69

Cleverly, J. R., J. R. Thibault, et al. (2001). "Middle Rio Grande riparian evapotranspiration, water balance, and restoration in space and time." Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts 86: 72

Clinton, B. (1999). "Executive Order 13112 - Invasive Species." Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 35(5): 185

An Invasive Species Council was formed by Pres Bill Clinton to protect the nation from alien species that may cause harm or damage to the ecosystem and to the economy. Under the president's directives, the council will implement the president's orders regarding the control of invasive species by coordinating with concerned federal agencies. Aside from this, the president ordered the council to produce a management plan that will contain specific objectives and measures that will be undertaken by federal agencies.

Coffman, G., T. Dudley, et al. (2005). Are we creating the ideal conditions for Arundo donax invasion in California? Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 9 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Corcoran, D. B., D. B. Cohen, et al. (1984). Glyphosate : use in forestry (Roundup) and aquatic weed control (Rodeo): a water quality assessment. Sacramento, California State Water Resources Control Board Toxic Substances Control Program

Cornish, P. S. (1992). "Glyphosate residues in a sandy soil affect tomato transplants." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 32(3): 395-399

Glyphosate residues in a loamy sand soil were suspected of damaging transplanted tomatoes at Gosford in 1990. Field and glasshouse experiments were conducted to determine whether phytotoxic residues of glyphosate persist in this soil type and, if so, under what conditions. In the glasshouse experiment, visible symptoms of glyphosate toxicity occurred in tomato seedlings transplanted into soil that was sprayed 1, 5 or 15 days earlier with glyphosate (360 g a.i./L) at 4 L product/ha. Glyphosate also reduced plant dry weight (16 days after transplanting), but only where soil nutrient deficiencies were corrected after transplanting. In this case, seedlings transplanted 15 days after spraying suffered an average reduction in dry weight of 57%. Greater reductions in dry weight occurred where superphosphate (43 kg P/ha) was mixed through soil before spraying (75 vs. 35% reduction). In the field, glyphosate residues reduced plant dry weight 16 days after transplanting, even when transplanting followed spraying by up to 9 days, and possibly as many as 30. At 9 days, reductions of 50, 74 and 78% were recorded with glyphosate (360 g a.i./L) applied at 2, 4 and 8 L/ha, respectively. Effects of glyphosate on fruit yield were significant (P < 0.05), but much smaller than effects on earlier plant dry weights. The phytotoxicity of glyphosate residues in this loamy sand appears to result from a combination of inherently low P sorption capacity and application of superphosphate, leading to low adsorption of glyphosate by soil. This may be exacerbated when dry conditions occur between application and planting. On the present evidence, a plant-back period of 3 weeks could be considered safe when transplanting tomatoes into this sandy soil, provided some mixing of soil occurs at transplanting. It is recommended that farmers perform a simple bioassay to confirm safety.

Cornish, P. S. and S. Burgin (2005). "Residual Effects of Glyphosate Herbicide in Ecological Restoration." Restoration Ecology 13(4): 695 (http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2005.00088.x).

This study assesses the risks in ecological restoration arising from transplanting into soil containing glyphosate residues. Four Australian restoration species were grown for 60 days in nonadsorbing media treated continuously with glyphosate to establish threshold concentrations for damage. Visual signs of injury were observed in three species, and severe effects on root growth in all species, at solution concentrations as low as 18 mg/L. Only the perennial grass Themeda sp. died at this concentration, with other species surviving at concentrations in the range 36–360 mg/L, beyond which all plants died. Fourteen days exposure followed by removal of glyphosate from root media produced similar effects. Field and glasshouse experiments with the relatively tolerant tree species Angophora costata showed that application rates in the range 10–50 L/ha of herbicide product (360 g/L) would be needed to sustain damage to young plants transplanted into soil typical of local restoration sites. The volume of spray delivered using a hand-operated sprayer varied between operators by 5- and 10-fold to complete the same tasks, at the high end presenting a potential risk to the most tolerant species under field conditions, even when spray concentrations follow label instructions. For all but the most sensitive species, the risk of glyphosate residues in ecological restoration should be minimized by training operators of unregulated applicators to deliver controlled volumes of herbicide when spot spraying prior to transplanting.

Cornwall, C. (2000). "Team Arundo del Norte Receives Calfed Grant." Noxious Times 2(4): 7 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Daehler, C. C. (2001). "Darwin's Naturalization Hypothesis Revisited." American Naturalist 158(3): 324

D'Antonio, C., Dudley TL, Mack M (2000). Disturbance and biological invasions: Direct effects and feedbacks. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground. Ecosystems of the World. W. LR. New York, Elsevier Science. 16: 429-468

Davis, M. A., J. P. Grime, et al. (2000). "Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invasibility." Journal of Ecology 88(3): 528

1 The invasion of habitats by non-native plant and animal species is a global phenomenon with potentially grave consequences for ecological, economic, and social systems. Unfortunately, to date, the study of invasions has been primarily anecdotal and resistant to generalization. 2 Here, we use insights from experiments and from long-term monitoring studies of vegetation to propose a new theory in which fluctuation in resource availability is identified as the key factor controlling invasibility, the susceptibility of an environment to invasion by non-resident species. The theory is mechanistic and quantitative in nature leading to a variety of testable predictions. 3 We conclude that the elusive nature of the invasion process arises from the fact that it depends upon conditions of resource enrichment or release that have a variety of causes but which occur only intermittently and, to result in invasion, must coincide with availability of invading propagules.

Keywords: plant invasions, invasibility, resource availability, fluctuating resources, disturbance, exotic species

de Jonge, H. and L. W. de Jonge (1999). "Influence of pH and solution composition on the sorption of glyphosate and prochloraz to a sandy loam soil." Chemosphere 39(5): 753-763

Standard protocols for batch sorption experiments prescribe the use of 0.01 M CaCl2 as the aqueous solution, but sorption can strongly depend on the solution composition. The present work quantifies the variation in sorption behavior of the herbicide glyphosate and the fungicide prochloraz to a sandy loam soil, arising from differences in pH, ionic strength, ortho-phosphate concentration, and dominant cation in solution (Ca2+, K+, NH4+). Using batch experiments, we measured the amount sorbed to the bulk fraction and clay-sized particles. From the adsorption and desorption isotherms, we estimated the Freundlich parameters, Kf and N. Sorption isotherms were mostly non-linear and manifested adsorption-desorption non-singularity. Adsorption Kf values were in the range 0.6-78.5 L kg-1 for glyphosate and 31.2-155 for prochloraz. The pH and ortho-phosphate affected the sorption of both glyphosate and prochloraz, whereas ionic strength and dominant cation only affected sorption of glyphosate.

De Marco, A., C. De Simone, et al. (1992). "Importance of the type of soil for the induction of micronuclei and the growth of primary roots of Vicia faba treated with the herbicides atrazine, glyphosate and maleic hydrazide." Mutation Research 279(1): 9-13

Research was carried out on the genotoxic effects (induction of micronucleated cells in primary root tips) and toxic effects (reduction in primary root growth) in young plants of Vicia faba grown in soils with different organic matter contents and treated with the herbicides atrazine, glyphosate and maleic hydrazide. The data obtained show that the genotoxic effects are noticeably influenced by the interactions between the herbicide and the type of soil in which the Vicia faba have grown. While maleic hydrazide proved to be highly clastogenic for young plants grown in both soils, atrazine was genotoxic only in younger plants grown in soil poor in organic matter. Glyphosate did not induce micronuclei under either soil condition, but induced a significant toxic effect.

De Waal, L. C. (1994). Ecology and management of invasive riverside plants. Chichester ; New York, Published for the International Centre of Landscape Ecology by Wiley

Decruyenaere, J. G. (2000). Seasonal and site effects on the vegetative reproduction and demography of Arundo donax L. (Poaceae), University of California, Riverside, 2000. (http://melvyl.cdlib.org/F/XRCTY66FDA69PS5LDKE821PYI3LMNGQSP9NETNSER88GQ4MM97-00455?func=short-format&format=954).

Decruyenaere, J. G. and J. S. Holt (2000). "Arundo donax Demography at Two Sites in Southern California." PROCEEDINGS- WESTERN SOCIETY OF WEED SCIENCE 53: 99

Decruyenaere, J. G. and J. S. Holt (2001). "Seasonality of clonal propagation in giant reed." Weed Science 49(6): 760-767

Vegetative propagules of an invasive riparian weed, giant reed, were collected monthly from two Southern California sites and planted in a greenhouse from August 1998 to July 1999. Rooting and emergence frequency of planted pieces and time to emergence, growth rate, and number of developing shoots were recorded; soluble carbohydrates were analyzed. Response variables were regressed against climatic, seasonal, and site effects using a stepwise model. Rhizomes established much more frequently than stems in all months. Time of year of collection was found to be the most important factor determining establishment of all propagule types. The interaction of maximum daily temperature and precipitation at the field sites had a lesser, but significant effect on rooting frequency. The lack of a consistent correlation between any of the response variables and climate or site may indicate broad environmental tolerance. Seasonal patterns in emergence, growth, and soluble carbohydrates suggest that control by shoot removal would be most effective in fall when rhizome carbohydrate reserves are the lowest, resulting in the greatest reduction in regrowth. Chemical control with phloem-mobile herbicides would be most effective in late summer or early fall, when carbohydrates are moving from leaves to belowground structures but prior to natural leaf senescence.

Decruyenaere, J. G. and J. S. Holt (2005). "Ramet Demography of a Clonal Invader, Arundo donax (Poaceae), in Southern California." Plant and Soil 277(1-2): 41-52 (http://www.springerlink.com/content/fh30301227787066/).

Arundo donax L. is a rhizomatous perennial, asexually reproducing species that has invaded riparian habitats throughout Mediterranean climate zones. This research evaluated ramet demography of A. donax in two California riparian communities that differed in nitrogen availability. Quadrats were established along 100 m transects at each site and oriented across the advancing fronts of established populations. Morphology and phenology were assessed monthly over 1 year for calculation of demographic parameters and rhizomes were excavated and mapped at the end of the experiment. A. donax exhibited seasonal patterns of recruitment but no dormancy at the high nitrogen site, while at the low nitrogen site no recruitment occurred in the winter and maximum recruitment was delayed by a month relative to the high nitrogen site. Spread of A. donax was delayed until spring and lower overall in the low nitrogen site compared to the high nitrogen site, where lower initial density, greater production of shoots, and higher linear and areal addition indicated that this population was spreading more rapidly. Temperature and precipitation influenced seasonality and amount of recruitment of A. donax in this study. Several recently established, immature clumps were found in gaps at the low nitrogen site, likely due to flood-mediated dispersal of propagules. Recruitment in these clumps occurred from shoot buds, in contrast to the mature populations that reproduced from rhizome buds. Ecologically based management strategies for A. donax and other exotic species should account for differences such as those described here and be tailored to local conditions where the species occurs.

Delfosse, E. S. (2000). "Biological Control: Important Tool for Managing Invasive Species." Agricultural Research 48(3): 2

DeLoach, C. J. and R. Carruthers (2001). "Beetles Sock It to Saltcedar." Agricultural Research 49(9): 23 (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/sep01/sci0901.htm).

Dempsey, J. and W. Elliott (2005). Invasive Plant Control at California State Parks in the Northern Sacramento Valley. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 52 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Descalzo, R. C., Z. K. Punja, et al. (1995). "Effect of herbicide-treated bean plants on the population dynamics of glyphosate-synergistic Pythium in the soil." Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 17(4): 367-368

Devine, B. (2001). "Invasive Species and the Conservation Community." Noxious Times 4(2): 12-14 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Devine, R. (1994). "Botanical barbarians." Sierra 79(1): 50

Devlin, R. M., S. J. Karczmarczyk, et al. (1986). "Initial and Residual Activity of Glyphosate and Sc-0224 in A Sandy Soil." Crop Protection 5(4): 293-296

DiPietro, D., M. Kelly, et al. (2002). California Weed Mapping Handbook, California Department of Food and Agriculture (http://teamarundo.org/mapping_rs/ca_weed_map_hnbk.pdf).

DiPietro, D., S. Ustin, et al. (2002). Mapping the invasive plant Arundo donax and associated riparian vegetation using AVIRIS. Eleventh JPL Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Workshop Proceedings. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, JPL: In Press (http://www.cstars.ucdavis.edu/%7Edeanne/dipietro_jpl_paper.htm).

DiTomaso, J. M. (1998). Biology and Ecology of Giant Reed. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 1-5 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

DiTomaso, J. M. (2004). "Herbicide Resistance in Weeds: How Serious a Problem is it in Wildlands?" Noxious Times 6(1): 6-7 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

DiTomaso, J. M. (2005). Efficacy and safety of new herbicides on the horizon. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 7 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

DiTomaso, J. M. and E. A. Healy (2003). Aquatic and Riparian Weeds of the West. Davis, CA, University of California, Davis, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources

This is the first comprehensive identification manual for aquatic and riparian weeds west of the Rocky Mountains. This practical, easy-to-use guide covers 171 aquatic plant species -- consisting of 58 plant groups, including a full description of 82 species and another 96 plants compared as similar species, representing 42 plant families.

Douce, R. (1993). The Biological Pollution of Arundo donax in River Estuaries and Beaches. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, P. Frandsen and S. Douthit. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 11-12 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Douthit, S. (1993). Arundo donax in the Santa Ana River Basin. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 7-10 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Dudley, T. (2003). "Arundo donax Detailed Report." from http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/datastore/detailreport.cfm?usernumber=8&surveynumber=182.

Dudley, T. a. B. C. (1995). Biological invasions in California wetlands: the impacts and control of non-indigenous species in natural areas. Oakland, Pacific Institute for SIDES

Dudley, T. L. (2000). Arundo donax L. Invasive Plants of California's Wildlands. C. C. Bossard, Randall, J. M., Hoshovsky, M. C. Berkeley, University of California Press: 53-58

Duran, N. L., K. A. Urick, et al. (2001). "Effects of aldicarb and atrazine on the microbial community structure and denitrification potential in soils from a riparian buffer restoration site." Abstracts of the General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology 101: 643

Riparian buffers are vegetative areas along aquatic habitats that help minimize the movement of soils and reduce the nutrient loadings (nitrogen and phosphorus) into rivers and streams. In order to use riparian buffers as management tools, it is necessary to evaluate their nitrate removal capacity and the effects that anthropogenic chemicals may have in this process. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of aldicarb (a pesticide) and atrazine (a herbicide) on the microbial community structure and denitrification potential of a riparian buffer restoration site using molecular biology techniques. Oligonucleotide primers specific for the nirK and nirS nitrite reductase genes were used to detect the denitrifying bacteria present in microcosms amended with aldicarb or atrazine via touchdown PCR. Sample DNA from all treatments revealed amplification of the nirK and nirS genes. However, the atrazine-treatments demonstrated weak band patterns visible only after reamplification. In addition, phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analyses revealed a shift in the microbial community structure and early stages of membrane toxicity were also observed as a result of atrazine exposure. Further characterization of the riparian restoration site indicated that the streambed zone had the highest microbial biomass content, heightened levels of toxicity, increased levels of Gram-positive and Gram-negative/anaerobic bacteria, and lower levels of actinomycetes and sulfur reducers as compared to the pasture area and vegetative riparian zone. The results of this study indicate that the presence of anthropogenic chemicals can impact the microbial communities and reduce the nitrate attenuation effectiveness of riparian buffers.

Durkin, P. R. (2003). Glyphosate - Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment, Final Report. Fayetteville, New York, Syracuse Environmental Research Associates, Inc. Prepared for: USDA, Forest Service, Forest Health Protection Staff: 281 pages (http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/pesticide/risk_assessments/04a03_glyphosate.pdf).

This document provides risk assessments for human health effects and ecological effects to support an assessment of the environmental consequences of using glyphosate in Forest Service vegetation management programs. This document has four chapters, including the introduction, program description, risk assessment for human health effects, and risk assessment for ecological effects or effects on wildlife species. Each of the two risk assessment chapters has four major sections, including an identification of the hazards associated with glyphosate, an assessment of potential exposure to this compound, an assessment of the dose-response relationships, and a characterization of the risks associated with plausible levels of exposure.

Durkin, P. R. and M. Follansbee (2004). Imazapyr - Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment, Final Report. Fayetteville, New York, Syracuse Environmental Research Associates, Inc. Prepared for: USDA, Forest Service, Forest Health Protection Staff: 149 pages (http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/pesticide/risk_assessments/121804_Imazapyr.pdf).

The USDA Forest Service uses the herbicide, imazapyr, in its vegetation management programs. This document provides risk assessments for human health effects and ecological effects to support an assessment of the environmental consequences of using imazapyr in current and future Forest Service programs. This is an update to the risk assessment conducted for the USDA Forest Service in 1999.

Eberbach, P. L. and L. A. Douglas (1991). "Method for the determination of glyphosate and (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid in soil using electron capture gas chromatography." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 39(10): 1776-1780

A procedure for extraction of the phosphonic acid herbicide glyphosate and its metabolite (aminomethyl)phosphonic acid from soils and for analysis of these two compounds by electron capture gas chromatography is described. Both compounds were extracted from the soil with aqueous triethylamine, cleaned up with anion- and cation-exchange resins, and derivatized in a single-step procedure with trifluoroacetic anhydride and trifluoroethanol. Where extraction of soil immediately followed fortification, recovery of glyphosate ranged from 88% to 104%. However, where extraction was delayed 13 h after fortification, the recovery of glyphosate varied from 48% to 67%. This low recovery of glyphosate was thought to be due to adsorption of some of the herbicide to soil particles during the period prior to extraction. This suggested that triethylamine was able to extract soluble glyphosate and weakly adsorbed glyphosate but not glyphosate that was strongly adsorbed during a pre-extraction period.

Else, J. (1996). Post-Flood Establishment of Native Woody Species and an Exotic, Arundo donax, in a Southern California Riparian System. San Diego, San Diego State University (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/giessow_j_thesis.pdf).

Elton, C. S. (1958). The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. London,, Methuen

Erickson, B. E. (2001). "Stopping invasive species." Environmental Science & Technology 35(7): 142A

The movement of invasive alien species is causing damage, some $123 billion per year in the United States and $500 billion them from leaving home by identifying the pathways of movement through the use of DNA probes and then blocking the movement.

ESA (2000). Biotic Invasions: Causes, Epidemiology, Global Consequences and Control, Ecological Society of America (http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/step5esa.html).

Everitt, J., Escobar, D. E., Alaniz, M. A., Davis, M. R., Richerson, J. V. (1996). "Using Spatial Information Technologies to Map Chinese Tamarisk (Tamarix chinensis) Infestations." Weed Science 44: 194-201

Everitt, J. H., DeLoach, C. J. (1990). "Remote Sensing of Chinese Tamarisk (Tamarix chinensis) and Associated Vegetation." Weed Science 38(3): 273-278

Everitt, J. H., C. Yang, et al. (2004). "Canopy spectra of giant reed and associated vegetation." Journal of range management 57(5): 561-569

This paper describes the spectral light reflectance characteristics of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) and the application of aerial color-infrared photography and videography for distinguishing infestations of this invasive plant species in Texas riparian areas. Airborne videography was integrated with global positioning system (GPS) and geographic information system (GIS) technologies for mapping the distribution of giant reed. Field spectral measurements showed that giant reed had higher near-infrared reflectance than associated plant species in summer and fall. Giant reed had a conspicuous pink image response on the color-infrared photography and videography. This allowed infestations to be quantified using computer analysis of the photographic and videographic images. Accuracy assessments performed on the classified images had user’s and producer’s accuracies for giant reed that ranged from 78% to 100%. Integration of the GPS with the video imagery permitted latitude-longitude coordinates of giant reed infestations to be recorded on each image. A long stretch of the Rio Grande in southwest and west Texas was flown with the photographic and video systems to detect giant reed infestations. The GPS coordinates on the color-infrared video scenes depicting giant reed infestations were entered into a GIS to map the distribution of this invasive weed along the Rio Grande.

Faber, P. A., Keller, E., Sands, A. Massey, B. W. (1989). The Ecology of Riparian Habitats of the Southern California Coastal Region: a Community Profile, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: 152 pages

Faix, O., D. Meier, et al. (1989). "Analysis of Lignocelluloses and Lignins From Arundo-Donax L and Miscanthus-Sinensis Anderss and Hydroliquefaction of Miscanthus." Biomass 18(2): 109-126

Faust, R. (2001). "Invasive species and areawide pest management: what we have learned." Agricultural Research 49(11): 2

Fennessy, M. S. and J. K. Cronk (1997). "The effectiveness and restoration potential of riparian ecotones for the management of nonpoint source pollution, particularly nitrate." Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 27(4): 285-317

Forlani, G., A. Mangiagalli, et al. (1999). "Degradation of the phosphonate herbicide glyphosate in soil: Evidence for a possible involvement of unculturable microorganisms." Soil Biology & Biochemistry 31(7): 991-997

The properties of microbial strains responsible for the rapid mineralization of the herbicide glyphosate in soil were investigated in soil-water mixtures supplemented with 10 mmol l-1 active ingredient. Over 2 weeks degradation kinetics were linear, as expected in the case of non-growth-linked metabolization, and the rate of utilization was not enhanced following repeated treatment of the soil with increasing herbicide doses. The availability of exceeding phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon sources did not affect the rate of glyphosate utilization, that was maximal under conditions of neutral pH, high oxygen and low osmolarity. The screening of 1200 bacterial strains isolated on a rich medium in the absence of the herbicide failed to identify any strain able to cleave the glyphosate molecule. When antibiotics with different mode of action were added to the mixtures. while some inhibitors of protein synthesis exerted considerable effects, those that are active only against actively-proliferating cells were scarcely effective. An MPN analysis was performed to enumerate degrading microorganisms, but in no dilution the same extent of utilization measured in the original mixture could be found. Results suggest that at least the first steps in herbicide degradation could be accomplished by some microbial species unable to grow in vitro and form visible colonies on plates.

Frandsen, P., Jackson, N. (1993). The Impact of Arundo donax on Flood Control and Endangered Species. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 13-16 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Frandsen, P., Jackson, N. (1993). Team Arundo - A model for inter-agency cooperation. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 35-39 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Frandsen, P. (1994). "Team Arundo: an interagency success story." California Weed Conference. Proceedings 46: 157-161

Frandsen, P. (1998). The Political Side of Exotic Pest Plants. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 67-68 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Frandsen, P., Jackson, N. (1998). Santa Ana River Interagency Habitat Recovery Project, Van Buren Bridge Project Area Summary. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 47-48 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Frandsen, P. R. (1997). Team Arundo: Interagency cooperation to control giant cane (Arundo donax). Assessment and Management of Plant Invasions. J. O. Luken, Thieret, J. W. New York, Springer: 244-248

Franklin, B. B. (1996). "Eradication/control of the exotic pest plants tamarisk and Arundo in the Santa Ynez River drainage." USDA-FS-PSW

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Franzreb, K. E. (1989). Ecology and Conservation of the Endangered Least Bell's Vireo. Sacramento, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Friedman, J. M., M. L. Scott, et al. (1995). "Restoration of riparian forest using irrigation, artificial disturbance, and natural seedfall." Environmental Management 19(4): 547-557

In interior western North America, many riparian forests dominated by cottonwood and willow are failing to reproduce downstream of dams. We tested the hypothesis that establishment is now prevented by absence of the bare, moist substrate formerly provided by floods and channel movement. Along Boulder Creek, a dammed stream in the Colorado plains, we tested the effects of disturbance (sod removal), irrigation, and addition of seed on the establishment of seedlings of plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides subsp. monilifera) and peachleaf willow (Salix amygdaloides). In unirrigated, undisturbed plots, mean cottonwood density was 0.03 seedlings/m-2. Irrigation or disturbance alone produced mean cottonwood densities of 0.39 and 0.75 seedlings/m-2. Plots that were both irrigated and disturbed produced a mean cottonwood density of 10.3 seedlings/m-2. The effects of irrigation and disturbance on cottonwood establishment were significant (P lt 0.005); added seed had no significant effect (P = 0.78). The few cottonwood seedlings in unirrigated plots were in low positions susceptible to scour by future moderate flows. We conclude that cottonwood establishment along Boulder Creek is limited by the scarcity of bare, moist sites safe from future scour. Establishment of peachleaf willow was significantly affected only by disturbance; daily sprinkler irrigation did not provide sufficient moisture to increase survival of this species. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of restoring plains cottonwood forests using natural seedfall, even where only widely scattered adult trees are present. Because use of natural seedfall conserves the genetic makeup of the local population, this method may be preferable to the use of imported cuttings.

Gaffney, K. (2003). A Watershed Approach to Arundo donax Removal and Riparian Restoration. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium: Planning Weed Management for Ecosystem Recovery. C. Pirosko. Berkeley, California, California Invasive Plant Council. 7: 17 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

Giant reed (Arundo donax), an invasive grass native to Asia, is widespread in the Russian River watershed and is beginning to invade other north coast stream ecosystems. Giant reed has a profoundly negative impact on native riparian plant communities and may affect the species that rely upon these communities, including three federally listed salmonids. We represent a community-based organization that is working in collaboration with agencies, landowners and community members to identify invaded sites, remove giant reed and restore native habitat. Basin wide mapping and GIS programs enable site prioritization, tracking of giant reed populations and monitoring of project success. Experimental trials indicate that giant reed reduces native plant species richness and abundance, as well as suppressing native seedling recruitment. These experiments also demonstrate that herbicide and tarping are highly effective control methods, and that removing giant reed allows for rapid natural regeneration of invaded sites. Results from our mapping and research program are incorporated into an ongoing watershed education and outreach program focused on reed removal and floodplain habitat recovery.

Gaffney, K. and R. Hunter (2005). Incorporating Applied Research into an Ongoing Watershed-Based, Programmatic Approach to Arundo donax Removal. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 46-47 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Gaffney, K. A. "Post eradication restoration protocols." from http://www.crpinc.org/eco/restoration.html#restore.

Gaffney, K. A. (2000). Invasive plants in riparian corridors: Distribution, control methods, and plant community effects. Rohnert Park, CA, Sonoma State University

Gaffney, K. A. (2002). "Giant Reed in the Russian River Watershed: Distribution, Plant Community Effects & Control Methods." from http://teamarundo.org/papers/GaffneyPres071002_files/frame.htm.

Gard, J. K., P. C. C. Feng, et al. (1997). "Nuclear magnetic resonance timecourse studies of glyphosate metabolism by microbial soil isolates." Xenobiotica 27(7): 633-644

1. Triple Resonance Isotope EDited nmr spectroscopy (TRIED) has been developed to detect and examine minute levels of glyphosate metabolites in microbial soil isolates. Using stable isotopic labelling (13C and 15N), TRIED allows the simultaneous detection of multiple metabolites in crude matrices at submicrogram levels. An improvement over earlier techniques where milligrams are needed, TRIED can detect 500 ng of triply labelled compound in a crude sample (1:14000 mass ratio) in just hours. 2. TRIED is used here to compare the kinetics and metabolic pathways of glyphosate metabolism by two strains of Ochrobactrum anthropi, LBAA and S5. Both LBAA and S5 appear to metabolize glyphosate primarily via the aminomethylphosphonate (AMPA) pathway, since no detectable levels of glycine or sarcosine are observed in the media or lysates of either microbe. The formation of N-methylAMPA is common to the metabolism of both microorganisms, but N-acetylAMPA is observed only in LBAA. N-methylacetamide is detected predominantly in media and lysates of S5, although some evidence also points to the formation of this metabolite in LBAA. 3. Results are consistent with conventional radioactive tracer studies. TRIED nmr provides more specific structural information complementary to radiolabel methods. Both nmr and radioactivity studies show S5 glyphosate metabolism to be much slower than that of LBAA.

Giessow, J. a. J. G. (2001). Planning: Arundo donax removal: A review of methods for control and biomass removal. Proceedings, California Exotic Pest Plant Council Symposiums: Achievements and Challenges in Wildland Weed Management. M. Kelly. Berkeley, CA, California Exotic Pest Plant Council. 6: 85 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

Giesy, J. P., S. Dobson, et al. (2000). "Ecotoxicological Risk Assessment for Roundup Herbicide." Rev Env. Contam. Toxicol. 167: 35-120

Gimsing, A. L., O. K. Borggaard, et al. (2004). "Chemical and microbiological soil characteristics controlling glyphosate mineralisation in Danish surface soils." Applied Soil Ecology 27: 233-242

GISP, G. I. S. D. (2003). "Arundo Fact Sheet, Global Invasive Species Database (GISP)." from http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=112&fr=1&sts=sss.

Global Invasive Species Database. (2006, Nov. 2, 2006). "Global Invasive Species Database (GISP)." from http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/.

The Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) aims to increase awareness about invasive alien species and to facilitate effective prevention and management activities. It is managed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the Species Survival Commission of the IUCN-World Conservation Union. The GISD was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) and is supported through partnerships with the National Biological Information Infrastructure, Manaaki Whenua-Landcare Research, the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund and the University of Auckland.

Gomez, M. A. and M. A. Sagardoy "The effect of glyphosate on aerobic bacteria that colonize a sandy soil." Anales de Edafologia y Agrobiologia 44(1-2): 119-130

From a sandy soil of the semiarid zone of the Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, 519 bacterial strains were isolated and their genera were identified. Furthermore the effect of the herbicide on the principal microbial groups was also studied. The results indicate that within the Gram positive bacteria, coryneform bacteria and Bacillus spp. were predominant microorganisms. In the Gram negative bacteria the Acinetobacter was found to be the dominant genus. The herbicide, as different dosis, had little effect on the bacteria that colonize the soil. Neither any deleterious effect was detected on the potential of these bacterial strains as participants in the nitrogen cycle. The application of the herbicide to sterilized soil at the dosis of 40 l/h did not produce any deleterious effect on eurythermic bacteria of the types coryneform, Bacillus spp. or Acetobacter 307. However, after 10 days of incubation, the number of Acinetobacter 218 was found to decrease. The imperceptible effect produced by glyphosate on the bacteria which normally colonize such soil suggests that the use of the herbicide would not produce any significant alteration in that biological component of the ecosystem soil.

Gomez, M. A. and M. A. Sagardoy "Influence of glyphosate herbicide on the microflora and mesofauna of a sandy soil in a semiarid region." Revista Latinoamericana de Microbiologia 27(4): 351-358

The effect of four applications (0, 2, 4 and 8 l/ha) of the herbicide glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl glycine) on the total numbers of aerobic bacteria, micro-arthropods, mites and springtails were studied periodically during 96 days in a sandy soil located in the semiarid region of the Buenos Aires Province, Argentine. The total numbers of the microflora did not change significantly (P = 0.05) neither with time nor with the mentioned treatments. The total numbers of the other groups were unaffected significantly by the herbicide treatments. However, significantly variations with time (p < 0.01) took place in the microarthropod population. Furthermore a highly significant (r = 0.95**) relation was obtained between the total numbers of arthropods and mites. Soil humidity was shown to have no effect on the total number of the organisms studied. From the results, it may be concluded that the glyphosate herbicide, applied even in amounts double that usually recommended do not produce harmful effects on the microflora and the mesofauna studied.

Goodwin, C. N., C. P. Hawkins, et al. (1997). "Riparian restoration in the Western United States: Overview and perspective." Restoration Ecology 5(4 SUPPL): 4-14

This historical and conceptual overview of riparian ecosystem restoration discusses how riparian ecosystems have been defined, describes the hydrologic, geomorphic, and biotic processes that create and maintain riparian ecosystems of the western USA, identifies the main types of anthropogenic disturbances occurring in these ecosystems, and provides an overview of restoration methods for each disturbance type. We suggest that riparian ecosystems consist of two zones: Zone I occupies the active floodplain and is frequently inundated and Zone II extends from the active floodplain to the valley wall. Successful restoration depends on understanding the physical and biological processes that influence natural riparian ecosystems and the types of disturbance that have degraded riparian areas. Thus we recommend adopting a process-based approach for riparian restoration. Disturbances to riparian ecosystems in the western USA result from streamflow modifications by dams, reservoirs, and diversions; stream channelization; direct modification of the riparian ecosystem; and watershed disturbances. Four topics should be addressed to advance the state of science for restoration of riparian ecosystems: (1) interdisciplinary approaches, (2) a unified framework, (3) a better understanding of fundamental riparian ecosystem processes, and (4) restoration potential more closely related to disturbance type. Three issues should be considered regarding the cause of the degraded environment: (1) the location of the causative disturbance with respect to the degraded riparian area, (2) whether the disturbance is ongoing or can be eliminated, and (3) whether or not recovery will occur naturally if the disturbance is removed.

Grace, M. H. and M. M. Saleh (1996). "Hepato-Protective Effect of Daturaolone Isolated From Solanum Arundo." Pharmazie 51(8): 593-595

Griggs, T., D. Peterson, et al. (1997). "Riparian forest restoration along the Sacramento River, California." Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 78(4 SUPPL): 99

Haltuch, M. A., P. A. Berkman, et al. (2000). "Geographic information system." Limnology and Oceanography 45(8): 1778

Geographic information system (GIS) analysis with bathymetric, substrate, and side scan sonar (SSS) data was used to assess both spatial and temporal expansion of exotic dreissenid mussels onto sedimentary habitats in Lake Erie. These data were used for developing multiple regression models with substrate types and SSS data to interpret the expansion of Dreissena assemblages across the central and western basins of Lake Erie from 1994 to 1998. The 1994-1996 GIS model predicted the 1997 SSS measurements of Dreissena coverage correctly in 84% of the cases (n = 50). Similarly, the 1994-1997 GIS model predicted the 1998 SSS measurements of Dreissena coverage correctly in 80% of the cases (n = 20). These models indicated that Dreissena coverage ranged from [is less than] 1% on muds in 1994 to 67% on sands and gravels in 1997. Based on all of the substrates, the 1994-1997 model indicates that Dreissena beds have been expanding since 1994 at 1,000 [+ or -] 6 [km.sup.2] [yr.sup.-1] and presently occupy 5,484 [+ or -] 32 [km.sup.2] of the 25,734 [km.sup.2] sedimentary bottom of Lake Erie. Our observations indicate that expanding Dreissena beds are altering soft-substrate habitats and influencing the ecosystem dynamics throughout Lake Erie. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that the distribution, abundance, and ecosystem impacts of invasive species in other watersheds can be accurately described and interpreted over diverse spatial and temporal scales using GIS models.

Haney, R. L., S. A. Senseman, et al. (2000). "Effect of glyphosate on soil microbial activity and biomass." Weed Science 48(1): 89-93

Herbicides applied to soils potentially affect soil microbial activity. Quantity and frequency of glyphosate application have escalated with the advent of glyphosate-tolerant crops. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of increasing glyphosate application rate on soil microbial biomass and activity. The soil used was Weswood silt loam. The isopropylamine salt of glyphosate was added at rates of 47, 94, 140, and 234 mug ai g-1 soil based on an assumed 2-mm glyphosate-soil interaction depth. Glyphosate significantly stimulated soil microbial activity as measured by C and N mineralization but did not affect soil microbial biomass. Cumulative C mineralization, as well as mineralization rate, increased with increasing glyphosate rate. Strong linear relationships between mineralized C and N and the amount of C and N added as glyphosate (r2 = 0.995, 0.996) and slopes approximating one indicated that glyphosate was the direct cause of the enhanced microbial activity. An increase in C mineralization rate occurred the first day following glyphosate addition and continued for 14 d. Glyphosate appeared to be directly and rapidly degraded by microbes, even at high application rates, without adversely affecting microbial activity.

Haney, R. L., S. A. Senseman, et al. (2002). "Soil carbon and nitrogen mineralization as affected by atrazine and glyphosate." Biology and Fertility of Soils 35(1): 35-40

Atrazine alone and atrazine plus glyphosate were added to soil to determine their effect on soil microbial activity as measured by C and N mineralization (Cmin, Nmin) and soil extractable atrazine without the use of radiolabelled isotopes. Atrazine alone was added to soils as a formulated product (Aatrex 4L) at a field rate of 2X(94 mg kg-1), 4X(188 mg kg-1), and 6X(282 mg kg-1) with an assumed soil penetration depth of 58 mm. Glyphosate, as Roundup Ultra, was added along with atrazine to soil in equal amounts bringing the total cumulative herbicide amount to 2X(188 mg kg-1), 4X(376 mg kg-1) and 6X(564 mg kg-1) assuming a 2-mm soil penetration depth for glyphosate. Atrazine plus glyphosate stimulated microbial activity more than atrazine alone. During 56 days of incubation, mineralized C and N were highly correlated (r2=0.93). In addition, the C and N added from the herbicides were correlated with the amounts of C and N mineralized above the controls and were highly correlated (r2=0.93 for Cmin and r2=0.97 for Nmin). Cmin was greatest during the first 7 days of incubation after herbicide application while Nmin was greatest during the day 14 to day 28 period indicating a possible substrate shift from glyphosate to atrazine since atrazine has more N relative to C than glyphosate. Atrazine extracted from soil at four time periods (day 7, 14, 28, and 56) showed similar degradation curves (DT50=10.5 days) for the atrazine and atrazine-glyphosate treatments for all rates, with the exception of the 6X rate after 14 days and the 2X rate after 28 days of incubation where glyphosate appeared to slightly enhance the degradation of atrazine.

Harris, R. and C. Olson (1997). "Two-stage system for prioritizing riparian restoration at the stream reach and community scales." Restoration Ecology 5(4 SUPPL): 34-42

This paper describes a two-stage system for prioritizing stream reaches and riparian communities along a given river for protection or restoration. The system uses associations between geomorphology and riparian vegetation at stream reach and community scales as a basis for defining reference conditions. First-stage reach classification involves collecting and analyzing data from topographic maps and aerial photographs. These data, along with judgment-based criteria for ranking reaches relative to reference conditions, are used to classify stream reaches as suitable for protection, recommended for mitigation or restoration within existing site-specific regulatory procedures, or requiring further analysis to evaluate community-scale restoration needs. Second-stage field sampling is conducted on the reaches needing further analysis to determine the riparian communities present, the associations between communities and floodplain landforms, and reference community conditions. This stage requires collection of field data on geomorphic conditions, plant species composition, and plant community structure. Cluster analysis or a comparable technique is used to classify plant communities associated with floodplain landforms and identify reference conditions for each landform. Community structure and species composition are compared to reference conditions to define restoration possibilities at the community scale. The combined results from stream reach and community scale analysis provide a strategy for protecting and restoring riparian resources for a whole river. Implementation requires further site-specific information on hydrology, geomorphology, and other factors.

Harris, R. R. (1999). "Defining reference conditions for restoration of riparian plant communities: Examples from California, USA." Environmental Management 24(1): 55-63

Currently, there is an emphasis on restoration of riparian vegetation in the western United States. Deciding on what and where to restore requires an understanding of relationships between riparian plant communities and their environments along with establishment of targets, or reference conditions, for restoration. Several methods, including off-site data and historical analysis have been used for establishing restoration reference conditions. In this paper, criteria are proposed for interpreting reference community composition and structure from the results of multivariate cluster analysis. The approach is illustrated with data from streams in the California Sierra Nevada, Central Valley, and southern coastal region to derive descriptions of reference communities for stream reaches and floodplain landforms. Cluster analysis results can be used to quantify the areas of both degraded and reference communities within a flood-plain, thereby facilitating restoration cost estimation.

Hawkins, C. P., K. L. Bartz, et al. (1997). "Vulnerability of riparian vegetation to catastrophic flooding: Implications for riparian restoration." Restoration Ecology 5(4 SUPPL): 75-84

In this study, we examined the site-specific effects of a large episodic flood on the riparian vegetation within the floodplain of the San Luis Rey River in southern California. Using multispectral airborne videography, we quantified percent cover of riparian vegetation, cultivated agricultural land, urban surfaces, upland vegetation, bare soil, and water within 22 sections of floodplain, both before and after a large flood (January 13, 1993). We also quantified the amount of these cover types within bands of the watershed 1 km wide X 5 km long directly upstream of each floodplain site. The amount of riparian vegetation destroyed by the flood within each section varied from nearly zero to almost 40% of pre-flood coverage. The magnitude of loss in riparian vegetation was most strongly related to the amount of riparian vegetation initially present in the floodplain and the amount of urban surfaces in the nearby watershed. These results suggest that riparian vegetation within the San Luis Rey River floodplain is generally at high risk of destruction from large floods, and that this risk is exaggerated in areas with high urban development. We infer from these results that sites near existing large areas of intact riparian vegetation and away from urban development will have the highest potential for successful long-term restoration.

Herrera, A. M. and T. L. Dudley (2003). "Reduction of riparian arthropod abundance and diversity as a consequence of giant reed (Arundo donax) invasion." Biological Invasions 5: 167-177

The non-indigenous perennial grass, Arundo donax, is an aggressive invader of riparian areas throughout California and many sub-tropical regions of the world, and is hypothesized to provide poorer quality habitat for native wildlife in riparian systems. We sampled aerial and ground dwelling insects and other terrestrial arthropods associated with Arundo, native willow vegetation (Salix spp.), and mixtures of the two vegetation types during two seasons to determine how Arundo influences invertebrate composition in a low gradient stream in central California. The total number of organisms, total biomass and taxonomic richness of aerial invertebrates associated with native vegetation was approximately twice that associated with Arundo vegetation, while mixed vegetation supported intermediate arthropod levels. Shannon-Weaver (Weiner) diversity associated with native vegetation stands was also higher than that of Arundo vegetation. Ground-dwelling assemblages did not show differences as great as aerial assemblages which are more critical to foraging avian species. These results indicate that vegetation type is a significant factor reducing the abundance and diversity of invertebrates in this, and presumably in many other riparian ecosystems where this invasive species has become a dominant component. Arundo invasion changes the vegetation structure of riparian zones and in turn, may increasingly jeopardize its habitat value for birds and other wildlife whose diets are largely composed of insects found in native riparian vegetation.

Hewitt, C. N., R. K. Monson, et al. (1990). "Isoprene Emissions From the Grass Arundo-Donax L Are Not Linked to Photorespiration." Plant Science 66(2): 139-144

Hickman, J., Ed. (1993). The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press

Hobbs, R. J. and H. A. Mooney (1998). "Broadening the extinction debate: population deletions and additions in California and Western Australia." Conservation Biology 12(2): 271 (http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0888-8892%28199804%2912%3A2%3C271%3ABTEDPD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0

http://www.jstor.org/journals/08888892.html).

Examples from California and Western Australia support the view that a focus on species extinction can lead to failure to appreciate some significant human impacts on biodiversity. Widespread deletion of populations and the addition of invasive species should also be treated with concern, as they can contribute to species extinctions. Data from California and Western Australia on species losses and gains and habitat losses exhibit similar trends in extinctions, contraction of range and invasions.

Hogan, T. (1999). "America's Least Wanted." Backpacker 28(9): 13

Holman, D. (2002). "Combined efforts rid area of invasive reeds." American City & County 117(3): 16

Homan, P. (1999). "A fauna survey of riparian and other revegetation sites in Eltham, Victoria." Victorian Naturalist (Blackburn) 116(1): 19-25

A fauna survey of revegetation sites was carried out over a six-month period in 1996 in Eltham, a north-east suburb of Melbourne with eleven mammals, fifty-six birds, eight reptiles and five amphibians being recorded. Results of the study showed an absence of small terrestrial native mammals and invasion of revegetated areas by introduced species.

Hosansky, D. (2001). "Invasive species: can harmful foreign plants and animals be stopped?" CQ Researcher 11(34): 785

Hoshovsky, M. (1987). Arundo donax. Element Stewardship Abstract, The Nature Conservancy, San Francisco, CA: 10 pages

Hulse, D. W. and S. V. Gregory (2001). Alternative futures as an integrative framework for riparian restoration of large rivers. Applying ecological principles to land management V. H. Dale and R. A. Haeuber. New York, Springer: 194-212

Hunter, J. C., K. B. Willett, et al. (1999). "Prospects for preservation and restoration of riparian forests in the Sacramento Valley, California, USA." Environmental Management 24(1): 65-75

This GIS-based study analyzes the distribution and management of woody riparian vegetation in California's Sacramento Valley and discusses the prospects for its conservation. Although forests were the predominant floodplain vegetation prior to extensive settlement, only 3.3% of floodplain was covered by forest in the late 1980s. This remaining forest was fragmented into 2607 patches with an average area of 3.1 ha. Only 180 patches were > 10 ha, with three patches > 100 ha. Despite over two decades of conservation efforts, these forests are essentially unpreserved: Only 14.5% of extant forests are in public ownership or on land managed primarily for biological conservation. Some privately owned forests represent opportunities for preservation, but owing to their small size and scattered distribution, reforestation would be necessary to obtain a high cover of forest over large areas. Additionally, high property values, existing land uses, and regulated hydrology constrain conservationefforts. As a consequence of these constraints, and current distribution and ownership patterns, preservation or restoration of substantial areas of riparian forest would be extremely expensive and would divert conservation resources from other habitats in this rapidly developing state. Therefore, efforts to conserve these forests should satisfy two criteria: (1) that the specific goals are attainable with available funding and existing human uses, and (2) funding the effort will result in more effective regional conservation than would funding the conservation of other habitats.

ITIS. (1999). "Taxonomic Information on Arundo." from http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/itisca/next?v_tsn=41449&taxa=&p_ifx=plglt&p_lang=.

Iverson, M. E. (1993). The Impact of Arundo donax on Water Resources. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 19-26 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Jackson, N. (1993). Control of Arundo donax techniques and pilot project. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 27-33 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Jackson, N. E., Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. (1993). "How to remove Arundo donax" The menu. Arundo donax workshop proceedings, Nov. 19, 1993. N. E. Jackson, Frandsen, P., Douthit, S. Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department: 75-81 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/proc93/proc93_index.html).

Jackson, N. E. (1998). Chemical Control of Giant Reed (Arundo donax) and Saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima). Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 33-42 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Jacobsen, M. S. (1985). San Luis Obispo City Giant Reed (arundo Donax) Management-control Plan Feasibility Study

Jacobsen, O. S. (2003). Degradation, Sorption and Persistence of Glyphosate and the metabolite AMPA in a fractured clay soil profile. In: Proceedings. XII Symposium on Peticides Chemistry. 137-144. Piacenza, Italy. 4-6 June, 2003. . A. A. M. Del Re, Capri, E., Padovani, L., Trevisan, M. (eds.): 137-144

Jakovleski, M. and M. Flores (2004). "Water and Weeds." Noxious Times 6(3): 6-9 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Jane, W. N. (1992). "The Ultrastructure of the Embryo Sac Before Fertilization in Arundo-Formosana Hack." Taiwania 37(2): 85-103

The mature embryo sac of Arundo formosana Hack. contains an egg apparatus composed of an egg cell and two synergid cells at the micropylar end, a central cell with two large polar nuclei in the middle, and a mass of 8 to 18 antipodal cells at the chalazal end. The egg apparatus shares a cell wall with the central cell at the micropylar end and there is only a plasma membrane surrounding at the chalazal end. The cytoplasm of the egg is rich in mitochondria, starch-containing plastids and oil drops. Two synergid cells are very similar and strongly polarized; mitochondria are distributed at the micropylar end and surrounding the filiform apparatus; plastids are only distributed at the chalazal end; and dictyosomes and dilated ER vesicles are numerous. The central cell has a complex organized cytoplasm that is rich in organelles; the two polar nuclei are partially fused; and many ingrowth walls occur adjacent to the nucellus. The antipodal cells contain a large amount of ER and ribosomes. Plasmodesmata are present in the cell wall between the embryo sac cells, but not adjacent to the nucellus. After pollination, the egg shows a considerable increase in polarity. The persistent synergid cell retains its original constitution and the degenerated synergid cell is filled with the electron dense materials. The number of dictyosomes and the quantities of oil drops and starch increase in the central cell. In the antipodal cells, most of rough ER becomes parallel with the cell walls; some dense-staining particles may be present between the plasma membranes and the cell walls; and the ingrowth walls occur adjacent to the nucellus.

Jane, W. N. (1997). "Ultrastructure of the maturing egg apparatus in Arundo formosana Hack. (Poaceae)." International Journal of Plant Sciences 158(6): 713-726 (http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1058-5893%28199711%29158%3A6%3C713%3AUOTMEA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V

http://www.jstor.org/journals/10585893.html).

Jane, W. N. (1999). "Ultrastructure of embryo development in Arundo formosana Hack. (Poaceae)." International Journal of Plant Sciences 160(1): 46-63

Jane, W. N. and S. H. T. Chiang (1991). "Morphology and development of bulliform cells in Arundo formosana Hack." Taiwania 36(1): 85-97

Bulliform cells of Arundo formosana Hack. occur intercostally in adaxidal epidermis of leaf blade. They are the most vacuolated among all cell types in the epidermis. They contain very few organelles. Bulliform cells are initiated in protoderm that is located in the sinus between two procambia. The site and initiation sequence of bulliform cells are closely related with the formation of procabium. The latter enlargement of bulliform cell occurs synchronously, and is limited by the presence of subepidermal sclerenchyma neighboring it. The enlargement of bulliform cells would play an important role in expansion of the developing blade.

Jane, W. N. and S. H. T. Chiang (1996). "Ultrastructure of Megasporogenesis and Early Megagametogenesis in Arundo Formosana Hack (Poaceae)." International Journal of Plant Sciences 157(4): 418-431 (http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1058-5893%28199607%29157%3A4%3C418%3AUOMAEM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0

http://www.jstor.org/journals/10585893.html).

Jensen, M. N. (2000). "Plant Invader May Use Chemical Weapons." Science 290(5491): 421

Jensen, S. E. and W. S. Platts (1990). Restoration of Degraded Riverine-Riparian Habitat in the Great Basin and Snake River Regions Usa. Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the Science. J. A. Kusler and M. E. Kentula. Washington, D.C, Island Press: 367-404

Jewell, S. (2000). "A Unified Defense Against Invasive Species." Endangered Species Bulletin 25(5): 8

Johnson, M., T. Dudley, et al. (2006). "Seed production in Arundo donax?" Cal-IPC News 14(3): 12-13 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/news/index.php).

Jones, P. (1997). "Team Arundo del Norte." Cal-EPPC News 7(2): 9 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/news/index.php).

Jorgensen, E. E., T. J. Canfield, et al. (2000). "Restored riparian buffers as tools for ecosystem restoration in the MAIA; processes, endpoints, and measures of success for water, soil, flora, and fauna." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 63(1): 199-210

Riparian buffer restorations are used as management tools to produce favorable water quality impacts, moreover among the many benefits riparian buffers may provide, their application as instruments for water quality restoration rests on a relatively firm foundation of research. However, the extent to which buffers can restore riparian ecosystems; their functionality and species composition, are essentially unknown. In light of the foregoing, two broad areas of research are indicated. First, data are needed to document the relative effectiveness of riparian buffers that differ according to width, length, and plant species composition. These questions, of managing buffer dimension and species composition for functionality, are of central importance even when attenuation of nutrient and sediment loads alone are considered. Second, where ecosystem restoration is the goal, effects to in-stream and terrestrial riparian biota need to be considered. Relatedly, the effects of the restoration on the landscape need to be considered. Particularly, at what rate do the effects of the riparian buffer on in-stream water quality, biota, and habitat diminish downstream from restored sites? Answers to these important questions are needed, for streams and watersheds of different size and for areas of differing soil type within watersheds. U.S. EPA-NRMRL has initiated a research project that will document the potential for buffers to restore riparian ecosystems; focusing on water quality effects, but also, importantly, documenting effects on biota. While substantial riparian buffer management initiatives are already underway, the extent of landscapes that influence riparian ecosystems in the eastern United States is large; leaving ample opportunity for this suggested research to provide improved buffer designs in the future. The ultimate goal of research projects developed under this paradigm of ecosystem restoration is to develop data that are needed to implement riparian buffer restorations in the mid-Atlantic and elsewhere, especially the eastern United States.

Kaiser, J. (1999). "Stemming the Tide of Invading Species." Science 285(5435): 1836

The increase of international trade and travel have brought about an corresponding increase in invasive species in virtually every country, and more dramatic steps are being taken to eradicate them. Prevention remains the most effective approach, and many are calling for more stringent import regulations, especially in connection with the pet and plant industries.

Kaiser, J. (2000). "Does Biodiversity Help Fend Off Invaders?" Science 288(5467): 785

Kelly, M. (1999). "Roundup of Arundo Projects Reveals Commitment, Strategic Weakness." Cal-EPPC News 7(2): 4-9 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/news/index.php).

Kentula, M. E. (1997). "A comparison of approaches to prioritizing sites for riparian restoration." Restoration Ecology 5(4 SUPPL): 69-74

This study compares the results of Olson and Harris (1997) and Russell et al. (1997) in their work to prioritize sites for riparian restoration in the San Luis Rey River watershed. Olson and Harris defined reaches of the mainstem and evaluated the relative potential for restoration and protection based on cover of natural vegetation, land use, and connectivity. Then they used data on geomorphic conditions, plant species composition, and community structure to prescribe strategies for restoration. Russell et al. used a modeling approach within a geographic information system to combine data on wetness and land use/land cover to identify areas with potential for protection and restoration. They prioritized the areas based on patch size and proximity to extant riparian habitat. The mainstem and associated floodplain defined by Olson and Harris was more than twice the size of the area defined by Russell et al., because Olson and Harris considered the entire valley floor, whereas Russell et al. used a wetness index to identify saturated zones within the floodplain. For seven of the twelve management units delineated along the mainstem, the two studies agreed on a strategy of restoration or protection. They differed on two. No comparison could be made of the three units for which Olson and Harris used project review, a unique category. Agreement of the results is due to the similarity of criteria used to identify and rank sites for protection and restoration; disagreement is due primarily to the level of resolution of the data. Both approaches have potential for use in watershed-level planning. The predictive power of the two approaches may be maximized when they are used in a complementary fashion.

Kershner, J. L. (1997). "Setting riparian/aquatic restoration objectives within a watershed context." Restoration Ecology 5(4 SUPPL): 15-24

Declines in native plant and animal communities have prompted new interest in the restoration of aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Past restoration activities typically have been site specific, with little thought to processes operating at larger scales. A watershed analysis process developed in the Pacific Northwest identifies four operating scales useful in developing restoration priorities: region, basin, watershed, and specific site. Watershed analysis provides a template for restoration practitioners to use in prioritizing restoration activities. The template identifies seven key steps necessary to understand and develop restoration priorities: (1) characterization, (2) identification of key issues and questions, (3) documentation of current conditions, (4) description of reference conditions, (5) identification of objectives, (6) summary of conditions and determination of causes, and (7) recommendations. When a similar process was used in the Uinta Mountains, Utah, and in the Siuslaw National Forest, Oregon, specialists were able to identify key habitat conditions and habitat forming processes and then to establish restoration priorities and implement the appropriate activities. Watershed analysis provides a valuable set of tools for identifying restoration activities and is currently being used throughout the Pacific Northwest to develop management strategies and restoration priorities. Although the analysis requires significant time, money, and personnel, experience suggests that watershed analysis provides valuable direction for managing aquatic and riparian resources.

Khudamrongsawat, J. (2002). Genetic diversity of Arundo donax in the Santa Ana River. Riverside, University of California Riverside

Khudamrongsawat, J., R. Tayyar, et al. (2004). "Genetic diversity of giant reed (Arundo donax) in the Santa Ana River, California." Weed Science 52(3): 395-405

Giant reed is one of the most widespread invasive species in riparian habitats in California and other coastal states of the United States. This species is thought to spread primarily asexually by flood dispersal of stem and rhizome pieces; viable seeds have not been found in the United States. Research was conducted to quantify genetic variation in giant reed along the Santa Ana River in California and to investigate the pattern of distribution of variation along this watershed. Populations at least 3.2 km apart were collected along the length of the Santa Ana River from the headwaters to the Pacific Ocean. One additional population from a different watershed was collected to serve as an out-group. Genetic analyses were conducted using both starch gel electrophoresis for isozyme analysis and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Both isozyme and RAPD analyses revealed levels of genetic diversity comparable with those in the literature for clonal species, suggesting that asexual reproduction is the primary means of spread of giant reed. Most phenotypes were spread along the Santa Ana River, which is expected if water is the primary means of spread of vegetative propagules. Among the unique phenotypes found, two isozyme phenotypes and one RAPD phenotype were dominant and were found spread along the river, which may indicate greater fitness or competitive superiority to the other phenotypes that were less common. The dominant phenotypes were also found in the out-group population, possibly because of spread by humans. Because spread occurs mainly asexually, management efforts should focus on preventing establishment and spread of vegetative propagules. A moderate level of genetic diversity also suggests that biological control of this weed could be successful.

Khuzhaev, V. I., B. Tashkhodzhaev, et al. (1995). "Arundo Donax Alkaloids .3. Revision of Donaxarine and Donaxaridine Structures." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(5): 720-727

Khuzhaev, V. U., Y. A. Abdullaev, et al. (1996). "Alkaloids of Arundo Donax .5. Mass-Spectrometry of Arundo Donax Alkaloids." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(2): 217-220

Khuzhaev, V. U. and S. F. Aripova (1995). "Alkaloids of Arundo Donax." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(2): 328-329

Khuzhaev, V. U., S. F. Aripova, et al. (1995). "Arundo Donax Alkaloids .4. Donaxanin As a New Pyrrolidine Alkaloid From Arundo Donax." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(5): 728-730

Khuzhaev, V. U., S. F. Aripova, et al. (1996). "Alkaloids of Arundo Donax .6. Structure of Donine." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(2): 221-224

Khuzhaev, V. U., S. F. Aripova, et al. (1994). "Arundin As a New Dimeric Alkaloid of Arundo Donax Roots." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(5): 685-686

Khuzhaev, V. U., S. F. Aripova, et al. (1994). "Dynamics of Arundo Donax Alkaloids Accumulation." Khimiya Prirodnykh Soedinenii(5): 687-688

Kiernan, V. (1993). "US Counts Cost of Alien Invaders." New Scientist 140(1896): 9

Research undertaken for the US Congress shows that alien plants and animals in the US will have cost the country $97 billion in the 20th century. The figure only covers 79 species. The research identified 4,500 alien species which have arrived in the US, 15% of which cause economic or environmental damage. The worst alien animal life is the boll weevil which has caused an estimated $50 billion in the first 1/2 of the 20th century. Other offenders include the Mediterranean fruit fly, the European gypsy moth, the zebra mussel and leafy spurge.

Kirk, A. (2003). The Potential contribution of Natural Enemies from Mediterranean Europe to the Management of the Invasive Weed Arundo donax (Graminae; Arundinae) in the US. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium: Planning Weed Management for Ecosystem Recovery. C. Pirosko. Berkeley, California, California Invasive Plant Council. 7: 62-28 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

The potential contribution of natural enemies from Mediterranean Europe to the management of the invasive weed Arundo donax (Graminae; Arundinae) in the US

Kirk, A.A.1, T. Widmer1, G. Campobasso1, R. Carruthers2, and T. Dudley2 1USDA-ARS, European Biological Control Laboratory 2USDA-ARS, Western Regional Research Center, Exotic and Invasive Weed Research Unit <ric@pw.usda.gov>

Arundo donax, Giant reed, is a widespread invasive weed in California and the southwestern US. It ranges from the Canary Islands to northern Myanmar. It is a biocontrol target because of its intransigence to cultural and chemical control and its disastrous impact on the local ecology. Foreign exploration in Nepal and India revealed little sign of natural control whereas collections made around the Mediterranean resulted in 3 Hymenoptera, 5 Diptera, and a scale species plus several plant diseases, which cause death of shoots, tips and dormant buds. On average 55% of an Arundo stand is dead in the region around Montpellier France. Preliminary results suggest mortality may be attributed to Diptera (24%), and scale insects (14%), with Hymenoptera and fungal pathogens also playing a role. Infested areas of California and parts of the Mediterranean basin are excellent climatic matches. These results suggest that the Mediterranean is likely to be a profitable area to explore for natural enemies. Characterization of Arundo samples from Europe, Africa, Asia, North America and Australia may elucidate its center of origin.

Kjær, J., P. Olsen, et al. (2005). The Danish Pesticide Leaching Assessment Programme, Monitoring results May 1999–June 2004. Copenhagen, Denmark, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland: 124 pages (http://pesticidvarsling.dk/monitor_uk/2004.html).

In 1998, the Danish Parliament initiated the Pesticide Leaching Assessment Programme (PLAP), an intensive monitoring programme aimed at evaluating the leaching risk of pesticides under field conditions. The objective of the PLAP is to improve the scientific foundation for decision making in the Danish registration procedures for pesticides. The specific aim is to analyse whether pesticides applied in accordance with current regulations leach to the groundwater in unacceptable concentrations.

The programme presently evaluates the leaching risk of 29 pesticides applied at five agricultural sites ranging in size from 1.1 to 2.4 ha. This report presents the results for the period May 1999–June 2004. Results covering part of the period (May 1999–June 2003) have been reported previously (Kjær et al., 2002, Kjær et al., 2003 and Kjær et al., 2004). The present report should therefore be seen as a continuation of previous reports with the main focus being on the leaching risk of pesticides applied during 2002.

Glyphosate was applied to a loamy soil at the beginning of September and the subsequent leaching to the drainage system was significantly below the threshold value. The leaching of glyphosate as affected by time of application - before and after 15 September - has been investigated in PLAP in recent years. Two out of four late autumn applications caused leaching above the threshold value, whereas this happened in only one out of three cases with early autumn applications. These findings did not give rise to any restrictions in the use of glyphosate.

Kjær, J., M. Ullum, et al. (2003). Leaching of Glyphosate and AMPA as affected by soil properties and precipitation distribution. In: Proceedings, XII Symposium on Pesticides Chemestry: Pesticide in air, plant, soil and water system, Piacenza, Italy. 4-6 June, 2003. A. A. M. Del Re, Capri, E., Padovani, L., Trevisan, M. (eds.): 107-114

Kjær, J., M. Ullum, et al. (2005). "Leaching of glyphosate and amino-methylphosphonic acid from Danish agricultural field sites." Journal of Environmental Quality 34(2): 608-620

Kolesik, P., A. Mills, et al. (1998). "Anatomical characteristics affecting the musical performance of clarinet reeds made from Arundo donax L. (Gramineae)." Annals of Botany 81(1): 151-155

Korol, R. V. (1985). "Regulation of Glyphosate Content in the Soil." Gigiena i Sanitariya(8): 71-72

Krzysko-Lupicka, T. and A. Orlik (1997). "The use of glyphosate as the sole source of phosphorus or carbon for the selection of soil-borne fungal strains capable to degrade this herbicide." Chemosphere 34(12): 2601-2605

The herbicide glyphosate was used as a selection agent for isolation of fungal strains capable to degrade phosphorus-to-carbon bond from standard sandy-clay soil. The studies have shown that the herbicide used in Martin medium as a sole source of phosphorus or carbon caused the decrease of the fungal population and substantially changed strain composition, thus selecting those which are able to degrade glyphosate.

Kubena, K. M. (1998). Rounding up the facts about Rodeo: An evaluation of non-target effects of estuarine invertebrates and juvenile salmon. . Seattle, University of Washington

Landers, D. H. (1997). "Riparian restoration: Current status and the reach to the future." Restoration Ecology 5(4 SUPPL): 113-121

Nine articles in the special issue of Restoration Ecology addressing the subject of site selection for riparian restoration activities were critically examined for this review. The approaches described make significant and original contributions to the field of riparian restoration. All are interdisciplinary to some extent, often combining the fields of hydrology, geomorphology, and biology in the design of restorations. A common component among the articles is that they take a broad view, if not a watershed view, of restoration site selection. The approaches can be generally described as top-down strategic approaches to siting restorations, as opposed to the more methods- and site-driven bottom-up, or tactical, approach. All the articles recognize the importance of developing endpoints related to the ecological function of riparian ecosystems. They succeed in their quest for these indicators of ecological function to varying degrees. The most common indicator used in these papers is riparian vegetation. Several additional elements of scientific investigation, if successfully pursued, could provide vital information and advance our understanding of riparian restoration: developing interdisciplinary approaches more fully, defining endpoints and reference conditions; implementing multiple scale approaches; viewing restorations as experimental ecosystem manipulations; developing a philosophy regarding exotic species; incorporating geographic information systems more often; and integrating science, society, and politics. The foundation provided by the contributions in this issue should provide a strong basis for the rapid advancement of future research in the area of riparian restoration.

Lass, L. W., Callihan, Robert H. (1993). "GPS and GIS for Weed Surveys and Management." Weed Technology 7: 249-254

Lawson, D. a. H. S. (2001). Evaluation of chipped Arundo biomass as mulch. Proceedings, California Exotic Pest Plant Council Symposiums: Achievements and Challenges in Wildland Weed Management. M. Kelly. Berkeley, CA, California Exotic Pest Plant. 6: 64-76 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

Lawson, D. M., J. A. Giessow, et al. (2001). The Santa Margarita River Arundo donax Control Project: Development of Methods and Plant Community Response. USGS/USFWS Conference, Pomona, CA, In press. USGS/USFWS Conference, Planning for Biodiversity: Bringing Research and Management Together

A large-scale effort to control the aggressively invasive exotic species Arundo donax in the Santa Margarita River watershed was initiated in 1997. The project was prompted by the need for Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton to address impacts to habitat for federally listed endangered species and wetlands regulated by the Army Corps of Engineers. As of 2000, 27 km of the main stem of the Santa Margarita River had been treated. The methods employed were tested in preliminary trials before widespread implementation, and additional techniques emerged during the course of the project. Although the primary target is A.donax, 14 other invasive exotic species that also threaten riparian ecosystem functions were treated when encountered. Vegetation monitoring transects were established in A.donax removal areas to document the effectiveness of the different treatments and recovery of the plant communities. A.donax was reduced by over 90 percent after the first treatment and accounted for less than 2 percent absolute cover after three follow-up treatments. An experiment testing low cost methods for establishing woody species after A.donax control was conducted. Cuttings were installed with no follow-up maintenance. Approximately 30 percent of Baccharis salicifolia, and large (3-6 m) willow cuttings survived 2 years.

Leidy, R. (1998). Historical Distribution and Current Status of Stream Fishes of the San Francisco Estuary: Opportunities for Protection and Restoration of Native Fish Assemblages. State of the Estuary Conference. San Francisco Estuary Project, San Francisco

Lemke, J. (2002). "Environmental Excavation Saves Nature Area of Giant Reed." from http://www.forester.net/gx_0201_environmental.html.

Levesque, C. A., J. E. Rahe, et al. (1987). "Effects of glyphosate on Fusarium spp.: Its influence on root colonization of weeds, propagule density in the soil, and crop emergence." Canadian Journal of Microbiology 33(5): 354-360

Glyphosate is a broad spectrum herbicide that can lead to root rot like damage on crops. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of glyphosate on the root-colonizing Fusarium spp. The research was conducted at two sites. Site one was densely covered with perennial weeds, and site two with annuals. At site one, spraying the weed cover with glyphosate increased (p < 0.05) the level of colonization by Fusarium spp. in Ranunculus repens and Holcus lanatus, but not in Stellaria media and Plantago lanceolata. At site two, glyphosate enhanced colonization in Spergula arvensis, Stellaria media, Echinochloa crus-galli, and Chenopodium album, but not in Capsella bursa-pastoris and Polygonum persicaria. At both sites, the number of colony-forming units of Fusarium spp. per gram of dried soil was increased by the application of glyphosate. Nevertheless, crops subsequently sown in the field containing the annual weeds were not detrimentally affected by glyphosate treatment of these weeds.

Levesque, C. A., J. E. Rahe, et al. (1992). "The Effect of Soil Heat Treatment and Microflora on the Efficacy of Glyphosate in Seedlings." Weed Research 32(5): 363-373

Seedlings of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were less sensitive to glyphosate when grown in heat-treated soil than in raw soil. Pythium spp. and Fusarium spp. were not detected in heat-treated loam or muck soils at the time of glyphosate treatment, although fungi of several other genera were present. The efficacy of glyphosate on wheat or beans grown in heat-treated loam soil was restored when untreated aqueous soil extracts were added to the heat-treated soil. Bean seedlings grown in five different soil types varied in their sensitivity to glyphosate. The variation in LD50 among autoclaved soils was lower than that among raw soils. Between 13- to 47-fold more glyphosate was required to kill the bean seedlings in any of the autoclaved soils compared with their corresponding raw soils. This differential effect was not observed on bean seedlings sprayed with either 2,4-D or paraquat. LD50 values for glyphosate on apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) seedlings growing in previously sterilized loam soil were reduced by inoculation of the soil with a representative Fusarium sp. or Pythium sp. obtained earlier from apple seedlings treated with glyphosate, but not by a Cylindrocarpon sp. from apple or Pythium ultimum Trow from glyphosate-treated bean. The efficacy of glyphosate on bean, wheat or apple seedlings can be affected by changes in certain microbial components of the soil.

Lodge, D. M. and M. Sagoff (2001). "Are invasive species harming the environment?" CQ Researcher 11(34): 807

Lowrey, J. and J. Watson (2004). Tamarisk and Arundo control on Cache Creek. Annual Meeting on Weed Management: Economic and Environmental Savings. Sacramento, California. 56: 82-83

Luken, J. O. and J. W. Thieret (1997). Assessment and management of plant invasions. New York, Springer

Martin, D. W. and J. C. Chambers (1997). "Effects of potential restoration techniques on soil moisture, rooting depth, and rooting activity in central Nevada riparian meadows." Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 78(4 SUPPL): 281

Mavrogianopoulos, G., V. Vogli, et al. (2002). "Use of wastewater as a nutrient solution in a closed gravel hydroponic culture of giant reed (Arundo donax)." Bioresource Technology 82(2): 103-107

McLean, P. A., C. M. Liu, et al. (1989). "Toward Herbicide Resistant Plants Cloning of the Genes for Glyphosate Degradation from A Soil Organism and Their Expression in Escherichia-Coli." Journal of Cellular Biochemistry Supplement(13 PART D): 338

Meals, D. W. (2001). "Water quality response to riparian restoration in an agricultural watershed in Vermont, USA." Water Science and Technology 43(5): 175-182

Achievement of management goals for Lake Champlain (Vermont/New York, USA and Quebec, Canada) will require reduction of agricultural phosphorus loads, the dominant nonpoint source in the Basin. Cost-effective phosphorus reduction strategies need reliable treatment techniques beyond basic cropland and waste management practices. The Lake Champlain Basin