April, B. (2005). Control of invasive plants through biological mitigation for transportation projects. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 8 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Baskin, Y. (1998). "Winners and losers in a changing world: global changes may promote invasions and alter the fate of invasive species." BioScience 48(10): 788

Global changes driven by human activity are affecting the ecosystem and exacerbating the problem concerning invasive species. Researchers have shown that the changing land utilization and proliferation of vectors that induces movement of species have the greatest contribution to the invasion problem.

Bell, C. E. (1998). Risks and Effects of Various Control Methods. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 43-46 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Blankinship, M. (2005). California’s new NPDES permit for aquatic herbicide use. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 8 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Bossard, C. C., J. M. Randall, et al., Eds. (2000). Invasive plants of California's wildlands. Berkeley, University of California Press

Bright, C. (1999). "Invasive Species: Pathogens of Globalization." Foreign Policy: 50

Bussan, A. and W. Dyer (1999). Herbicides and Rangeland. Biology and Management of noxious rangeland weeds. R. P. Sheley, J. Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State Univiersity Press: 116-132 (http://teamarundo.org/control_manage/docs/herbicides_rangeland.pdf).

Contents Sect. I. Theory and Practice of Weed Management -- Introduction / R. L. Sheley, J. K. Petroff and M. M. Borman. 1. Impacts of Noxious Weeds on Ecologic and Economic Systems / Bret E. Olson. 2. Surveying, Mapping, and Monitoring Noxious Weeds on Rangelands / Douglas E. Johnson. 3. Coordinated Weed Management Planning / Tony Svejcar. 4. Economic Evaluation Procedures for Noxious Weed Management on Rangeland / Duane Griffith. 5. Integrated Weed Management on Rangeland / Roger L. Sheley, Susan Kedzie-Webb and Bruce D. Maxwell. 6. Preventing Noxious Weed Invasion / Roger L. Sheley, Mark Manoukian and Gerald Marks. 7. Early Detection and Eradication of New Weed Infestations / David L. Zamora and Donald C. Thill. 8. Grazing and Weeds / Bret E. Olson. 9. Biological Control of Noxious Rangeland Weeds / Linda M. Wilson and Joseph P. McCaffrey. 10. Herbicides and Rangeland / Alvin J. Bussan and William E. Dyer.

11. Revegetating Noxious Weed-Infested Rangeland / James S. Jacobs, Michael F. Carpinelli and Roger L. Sheley -- Sect. II. The Weeds. 12. Biennial Thistles / K. George Beck. 13. Canada Thistle / Don W. Morishita. 14. Cheatgrass / Jeffrey C. Mosley, Stephen C. Bunting and Mark E. Manoukian. 15. Common Crupina / Donald C. Thill, Cindy T. Roche and David L. Zamora. 16. Dalmatian and Yellow Toadflax / Sherry Lajeunesse. 17. Diffuse Knapweed / Ben F. Roche, Jr. and Cindy Talbott Roche. 18. Dyer's Woad / Erin G. McConnell, John O. Evans and Steven A. Dewey. 19. Meadow and Orange Hawkweed / Linda M. Wilson and Robert H. Callihan. 20. Leafy Spurge / Sherry Lajeunesse, Roger L. Sheley and Celestine Duncan / [et al.]. 21. Mediterranean Sage / Cindy Talbott Roche and Linda M. Wilson. 22. Medusahead / Heather C. Miller, David Clausnitzer and Michael M. Borman. 23. Oxeye Daisy / Bret E. Olson and Roseann T. Wallander. 24. Poison-Hemlock / Joseph M. DiTomaso. 25. Purple Loosestrife / Barbra Mullin.

26. Rush Skeletonweed / Roger L. Sheley, Joseph M. Hudak and Robert T. Grubb. 27. Russian Knapweed / Tom D. Whitson. 28. Snakeweeds / Tracy M. Sterling, David C. Thompson and Kirk C. McDaniel. 29. Sowthistles / Richard K. Zollinger and Robert Parker. 30. Spotted Knapweed / Roger L. Sheley, James S. Jacobs and Michael L. Carpinelli. 31. Squarrose Knapweed / Cindy Talbott Roche. 32. St. Johnswort / Gary L. Piper. 33. Sulfur Cinquefoil / Peter Rice. 34. Tansy Ragwort / Eric M. Coombs, Peter B. McEvoy and Charles E. Turner. 35. Whitetop / Roger L. Sheley and Jack Stivers. 36. Yellow Starthistle / Roger L. Sheley, Larry L. Larson and James S. Jacobs.

CalFlora. "CalFlora Database." from http://www.calflora.org/index0.html.

The Calflora Database is a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing information about California plant biodiversity for use in Education, Research and Conservation. CalFlora is a comprehensive database of plant distribution information for California on critical issues related to plant diversity and change to plant diversity and change in distribution of native and exotic species.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. (2006). "California Noxious Weed Information Project." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxweedinfo/noxweedinfo_hp.htm.

The Noxious Weed Information Project (NWIP) is a part of Integrated Pest Control, a branch of Plant Health and Pest Prevention Services which is a division of the California Department of Food and Agriculture. Current activities include collecting and processing data on current weed management projects that are focused primarily on A-rated weeds. NWIP provides maps and other information for CDFA, biologists and the general public.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. (2006). "California Weed Management Areas." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/weedmgtareas/wma_index_hp.htm.

Weed Management Areas (WMAs) are local organizations that bring together landowners and managers (private, city, county, State, and Federal) in a county, multi-county, or other geographical area to coordinate efforts and expertise against common invasive weed species. The WMA functions under the authority of a mutually developed memorandum of understanding (MOU) and is subject to statutory and regulatory weed control requirements. A WMA may be voluntarily governed by a chairperson or a steering committee. To date, groups in California have been initiated by either the leadership of the County Agricultural Commissioner’s Office or a Federal Agency employee. WMAs are unique because they attempt to address agricultural (regulatory) weeds and “wildland” weeds under one local umbrella of organization. It is hoped that participation will extend from all agencies and private organizations. WMAs have printed weed I.D./control brochures, organized weed education events, written and obtained grants, coordinated demonstration plots, and instituted joint eradication, mapping, outreach, and other effective weed management projects.

California Department of Food and Agriculture. (2006). "EncycloWeedia." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/encycloweedia/encycloweedia_hp.htm.

Notes on Identification, Biology, and Management of Plants Defined as Noxious Weeds by California Law

California Department of Food and Agriculture - Pesticide Investigations Unit (2000). Control of Giant Cane in Riparian and Wetland Areas of Northern and Central California, California Department of Food and Agriculture (http://teamarundo.org/control_manage/DFG-EPAreport.html).

This project has three primary objectives: (1) to determine the best methods for giant cane control in northern and central California; (2) to educate the public regarding the giant cane threat; and (3) to gather information regarding giant cane’s current presence in northern and central California and its potential for further invasive spread in the region. These objectives were accomplished via the following four tasks:

1) the establishment of a giant cane control demonstration project; 2) the completion of an herbicide risk assessment for nontarget aquatic species; 3) the development of giant cane educational materials; and 4) the completion of a giant cane survey project for northern and central California.

California Environmental Resources Information System. (2006). "California Environmental Resources Information System (CERES) site on invasive species." Retrieved Nov. 3, 2006, from http://www.ceres.ca.gov/theme/invasives.html.

California Exotic Pest Plant Council (1993). Arundo Donax Workshop Proceedings. Arundo Donax Workshop Proceedings, Ontario, CA, Riverside County Parks Department (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

California Exotic Pest Plant Council (1998). Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, Ontario, CA, University of California Coorperative Extension, Imperial County (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

California Interagency Noxious and Invasive Plant Committee. (2006). "Noxious Times." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_hp.htm.

This publication, sponsored by the California Interagency Noxious and Invasive Plant Committee (CINIPC), provides agencies and local staff with information on noxious weed control throughout California. By providing news, policy information, and agency reports, the Noxious Times is an excellent resource for those interested in sharing information and coordinating efforts against noxious weeds.

California Interagency Noxious Weed Coordinating Committee. (2006, Nov. 2, 2006). "CALWEED DATABASE: California Noxious Weed Control Projects Inventory." from http://endeavor.des.ucdavis.edu/weeds/.

The California Interagency Noxious Weed Coordinating Committee is a group of sixteen State and Federal agencies meeting quarterly, in conjunction with stakeholders, to coordinate activities with respect to noxious weed control. A central project of the group has been to create an Internet accessible database, which acts as a clearing-house for noxious weed control projects in California. The database contains information on who is controlling which noxious weeds in California and what methods they are using. This information is searchable by keywords.

Projects which qualify for this database attempt to eradicate or reduce the number of noxious weeds in California. The emphasis of the database is on weeds considered noxious by the California Department of Food & Agriculture or a threat to wildlands by the California Exotic Plant Pest Council.

The projects in the Calweed Database have been incorportated into the Natural Resource Projects Inventory (NRPI).

California Watershed Funding Database. (2006, Nov. 3, 2006). "California Watershed Funding Database." from http://www.calwatershedfunds.org/.

Callaway, R. M. and E. T. Aschehoug (2000). "Invasive Plants Versus Their New and Old Neighbors: A Mechanism for Exotic Invasion." Science 290(5491): 521

Invading exotic plants are thought to succeed primarily because they have escaped their natural enemies, not because of novel interactions with their new neighbors. However, we find that Centaurea diffusa, a noxious weed in North America, has much stronger negative effects on grass species from North America than on closely related grass species from communities to which Centaurea is native. Centaurea's advantage against North American species appears to be due to differences in the effects of its root exudates and how these root exudates affect competition for resources. Our results may help to explain why some exotic species so successfully invade natural plant communities.

Carpenter, B. (1995). "Biological nightmares: when exotic species invade a habitat, it can be ecologically disastrous." U.S. News & World Report 119(20): 85

Global commerce and travel has also led to a large increase in the number of invasive species in foreign habitats, which can wreak havoc in local ecosystems. The economic and environmental cost of this is huge, and it threatens already endangered species.

Center for Invasive Plant Management. (2006). "Center for Invasive Plant Management." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://www.weedcenter.org.

The Center for Invasive Plant Management (CIPM) supports natural resource managers, scientists, and educators pursuing ecological approaches to invasive plant management.

Coffman, G., T. Dudley, et al. (2005). Are we creating the ideal conditions for Arundo donax invasion in California? Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 9 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Daehler, C. C. (2001). "Darwin's Naturalization Hypothesis Revisited." American Naturalist 158(3): 324

D'Antonio, C., Dudley TL, Mack M (2000). Disturbance and biological invasions: Direct effects and feedbacks. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground. Ecosystems of the World. W. LR. New York, Elsevier Science. 16: 429-468

Davis, M. A., J. P. Grime, et al. (2000). "Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invasibility." Journal of Ecology 88(3): 528

1 The invasion of habitats by non-native plant and animal species is a global phenomenon with potentially grave consequences for ecological, economic, and social systems. Unfortunately, to date, the study of invasions has been primarily anecdotal and resistant to generalization. 2 Here, we use insights from experiments and from long-term monitoring studies of vegetation to propose a new theory in which fluctuation in resource availability is identified as the key factor controlling invasibility, the susceptibility of an environment to invasion by non-resident species. The theory is mechanistic and quantitative in nature leading to a variety of testable predictions. 3 We conclude that the elusive nature of the invasion process arises from the fact that it depends upon conditions of resource enrichment or release that have a variety of causes but which occur only intermittently and, to result in invasion, must coincide with availability of invading propagules.

Keywords: plant invasions, invasibility, resource availability, fluctuating resources, disturbance, exotic species

De Waal, L. C. (1994). Ecology and management of invasive riverside plants. Chichester ; New York, Published for the International Centre of Landscape Ecology by Wiley

Decruyenaere, J. G. (2000). Seasonal and site effects on the vegetative reproduction and demography of Arundo donax L. (Poaceae), University of California, Riverside, 2000. (http://melvyl.cdlib.org/F/XRCTY66FDA69PS5LDKE821PYI3LMNGQSP9NETNSER88GQ4MM97-00455?func=short-format&format=954).

DeLoach, C. J. and R. Carruthers (2001). "Beetles Sock It to Saltcedar." Agricultural Research 49(9): 23 (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/sep01/sci0901.htm).

Dempsey, J. and W. Elliott (2005). Invasive Plant Control at California State Parks in the Northern Sacramento Valley. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 52 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Devine, B. (2001). "Invasive Species and the Conservation Community." Noxious Times 4(2): 12-14 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

DiPietro, D., M. Kelly, et al. (2002). California Weed Mapping Handbook, California Department of Food and Agriculture (http://teamarundo.org/mapping_rs/ca_weed_map_hnbk.pdf).

DiTomaso, J. M. (1998). Biology and Ecology of Giant Reed. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 1-5 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

DiTomaso, J. M. (2005). Efficacy and safety of new herbicides on the horizon. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 7 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Dudley, T. (2003). "Arundo donax Detailed Report." from http://ucce.ucdavis.edu/datastore/detailreport.cfm?usernumber=8&surveynumber=182.

Dudley, T. a. B. C. (1995). Biological invasions in California wetlands: the impacts and control of non-indigenous species in natural areas. Oakland, Pacific Institute for SIDES

Erickson, B. E. (2001). "Stopping invasive species." Environmental Science & Technology 35(7): 142A

The movement of invasive alien species is causing damage, some $123 billion per year in the United States and $500 billion them from leaving home by identifying the pathways of movement through the use of DNA probes and then blocking the movement.

ESA (2000). Biotic Invasions: Causes, Epidemiology, Global Consequences and Control, Ecological Society of America (http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/step5esa.html).

Everitt, J. H., C. Yang, et al. (2004). "Canopy spectra of giant reed and associated vegetation." Journal of range management 57(5): 561-569

This paper describes the spectral light reflectance characteristics of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) and the application of aerial color-infrared photography and videography for distinguishing infestations of this invasive plant species in Texas riparian areas. Airborne videography was integrated with global positioning system (GPS) and geographic information system (GIS) technologies for mapping the distribution of giant reed. Field spectral measurements showed that giant reed had higher near-infrared reflectance than associated plant species in summer and fall. Giant reed had a conspicuous pink image response on the color-infrared photography and videography. This allowed infestations to be quantified using computer analysis of the photographic and videographic images. Accuracy assessments performed on the classified images had user’s and producer’s accuracies for giant reed that ranged from 78% to 100%. Integration of the GPS with the video imagery permitted latitude-longitude coordinates of giant reed infestations to be recorded on each image. A long stretch of the Rio Grande in southwest and west Texas was flown with the photographic and video systems to detect giant reed infestations. The GPS coordinates on the color-infrared video scenes depicting giant reed infestations were entered into a GIS to map the distribution of this invasive weed along the Rio Grande.

Frandsen, P., Jackson, N. (1998). Santa Ana River Interagency Habitat Recovery Project, Van Buren Bridge Project Area Summary. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 47-48 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Gaffney, K. (2003). A Watershed Approach to Arundo donax Removal and Riparian Restoration. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium: Planning Weed Management for Ecosystem Recovery. C. Pirosko. Berkeley, California, California Invasive Plant Council. 7: 17 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

Giant reed (Arundo donax), an invasive grass native to Asia, is widespread in the Russian River watershed and is beginning to invade other north coast stream ecosystems. Giant reed has a profoundly negative impact on native riparian plant communities and may affect the species that rely upon these communities, including three federally listed salmonids. We represent a community-based organization that is working in collaboration with agencies, landowners and community members to identify invaded sites, remove giant reed and restore native habitat. Basin wide mapping and GIS programs enable site prioritization, tracking of giant reed populations and monitoring of project success. Experimental trials indicate that giant reed reduces native plant species richness and abundance, as well as suppressing native seedling recruitment. These experiments also demonstrate that herbicide and tarping are highly effective control methods, and that removing giant reed allows for rapid natural regeneration of invaded sites. Results from our mapping and research program are incorporated into an ongoing watershed education and outreach program focused on reed removal and floodplain habitat recovery.

Gaffney, K. A. "Post eradication restoration protocols." from http://www.crpinc.org/eco/restoration.html#restore.

Gaffney, K. A. (2000). Invasive plants in riparian corridors: Distribution, control methods, and plant community effects. Rohnert Park, CA, Sonoma State University

Gaffney, K. A. (2002). "Giant Reed in the Russian River Watershed: Distribution, Plant Community Effects & Control Methods." from http://teamarundo.org/papers/GaffneyPres071002_files/frame.htm.

GISP, G. I. S. D. (2003). "Arundo Fact Sheet, Global Invasive Species Database (GISP)." from http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=112&fr=1&sts=sss.

Global Invasive Species Database. (2006, Nov. 2, 2006). "Global Invasive Species Database (GISP)." from http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/.

The Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) aims to increase awareness about invasive alien species and to facilitate effective prevention and management activities. It is managed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the Species Survival Commission of the IUCN-World Conservation Union. The GISD was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) and is supported through partnerships with the National Biological Information Infrastructure, Manaaki Whenua-Landcare Research, the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund and the University of Auckland.

Haltuch, M. A., P. A. Berkman, et al. (2000). "Geographic information system." Limnology and Oceanography 45(8): 1778

Geographic information system (GIS) analysis with bathymetric, substrate, and side scan sonar (SSS) data was used to assess both spatial and temporal expansion of exotic dreissenid mussels onto sedimentary habitats in Lake Erie. These data were used for developing multiple regression models with substrate types and SSS data to interpret the expansion of Dreissena assemblages across the central and western basins of Lake Erie from 1994 to 1998. The 1994-1996 GIS model predicted the 1997 SSS measurements of Dreissena coverage correctly in 84% of the cases (n = 50). Similarly, the 1994-1997 GIS model predicted the 1998 SSS measurements of Dreissena coverage correctly in 80% of the cases (n = 20). These models indicated that Dreissena coverage ranged from [is less than] 1% on muds in 1994 to 67% on sands and gravels in 1997. Based on all of the substrates, the 1994-1997 model indicates that Dreissena beds have been expanding since 1994 at 1,000 [+ or -] 6 [km.sup.2] [yr.sup.-1] and presently occupy 5,484 [+ or -] 32 [km.sup.2] of the 25,734 [km.sup.2] sedimentary bottom of Lake Erie. Our observations indicate that expanding Dreissena beds are altering soft-substrate habitats and influencing the ecosystem dynamics throughout Lake Erie. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that the distribution, abundance, and ecosystem impacts of invasive species in other watersheds can be accurately described and interpreted over diverse spatial and temporal scales using GIS models.

Herrera, A. M. and T. L. Dudley (2003). "Reduction of riparian arthropod abundance and diversity as a consequence of giant reed (Arundo donax) invasion." Biological Invasions 5: 167-177

The non-indigenous perennial grass, Arundo donax, is an aggressive invader of riparian areas throughout California and many sub-tropical regions of the world, and is hypothesized to provide poorer quality habitat for native wildlife in riparian systems. We sampled aerial and ground dwelling insects and other terrestrial arthropods associated with Arundo, native willow vegetation (Salix spp.), and mixtures of the two vegetation types during two seasons to determine how Arundo influences invertebrate composition in a low gradient stream in central California. The total number of organisms, total biomass and taxonomic richness of aerial invertebrates associated with native vegetation was approximately twice that associated with Arundo vegetation, while mixed vegetation supported intermediate arthropod levels. Shannon-Weaver (Weiner) diversity associated with native vegetation stands was also higher than that of Arundo vegetation. Ground-dwelling assemblages did not show differences as great as aerial assemblages which are more critical to foraging avian species. These results indicate that vegetation type is a significant factor reducing the abundance and diversity of invertebrates in this, and presumably in many other riparian ecosystems where this invasive species has become a dominant component. Arundo invasion changes the vegetation structure of riparian zones and in turn, may increasingly jeopardize its habitat value for birds and other wildlife whose diets are largely composed of insects found in native riparian vegetation.

Hogan, T. (1999). "America's Least Wanted." Backpacker 28(9): 13

Hosansky, D. (2001). "Invasive species: can harmful foreign plants and animals be stopped?" CQ Researcher 11(34): 785

Jackson, N. E. (1998). Chemical Control of Giant Reed (Arundo donax) and Saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima). Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 33-42 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Jensen, M. N. (2000). "Plant Invader May Use Chemical Weapons." Science 290(5491): 421

Jewell, S. (2000). "A Unified Defense Against Invasive Species." Endangered Species Bulletin 25(5): 8

Kaiser, J. (1999). "Stemming the Tide of Invading Species." Science 285(5435): 1836

The increase of international trade and travel have brought about an corresponding increase in invasive species in virtually every country, and more dramatic steps are being taken to eradicate them. Prevention remains the most effective approach, and many are calling for more stringent import regulations, especially in connection with the pet and plant industries.

Kaiser, J. (2000). "Does Biodiversity Help Fend Off Invaders?" Science 288(5467): 785

Kiernan, V. (1993). "US Counts Cost of Alien Invaders." New Scientist 140(1896): 9

Research undertaken for the US Congress shows that alien plants and animals in the US will have cost the country $97 billion in the 20th century. The figure only covers 79 species. The research identified 4,500 alien species which have arrived in the US, 15% of which cause economic or environmental damage. The worst alien animal life is the boll weevil which has caused an estimated $50 billion in the first 1/2 of the 20th century. Other offenders include the Mediterranean fruit fly, the European gypsy moth, the zebra mussel and leafy spurge.

Kirk, A. (2003). The Potential contribution of Natural Enemies from Mediterranean Europe to the Management of the Invasive Weed Arundo donax (Graminae; Arundinae) in the US. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium: Planning Weed Management for Ecosystem Recovery. C. Pirosko. Berkeley, California, California Invasive Plant Council. 7: 62-28 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

The potential contribution of natural enemies from Mediterranean Europe to the management of the invasive weed Arundo donax (Graminae; Arundinae) in the US

Kirk, A.A.1, T. Widmer1, G. Campobasso1, R. Carruthers2, and T. Dudley2 1USDA-ARS, European Biological Control Laboratory 2USDA-ARS, Western Regional Research Center, Exotic and Invasive Weed Research Unit <ric@pw.usda.gov>

Arundo donax, Giant reed, is a widespread invasive weed in California and the southwestern US. It ranges from the Canary Islands to northern Myanmar. It is a biocontrol target because of its intransigence to cultural and chemical control and its disastrous impact on the local ecology. Foreign exploration in Nepal and India revealed little sign of natural control whereas collections made around the Mediterranean resulted in 3 Hymenoptera, 5 Diptera, and a scale species plus several plant diseases, which cause death of shoots, tips and dormant buds. On average 55% of an Arundo stand is dead in the region around Montpellier France. Preliminary results suggest mortality may be attributed to Diptera (24%), and scale insects (14%), with Hymenoptera and fungal pathogens also playing a role. Infested areas of California and parts of the Mediterranean basin are excellent climatic matches. These results suggest that the Mediterranean is likely to be a profitable area to explore for natural enemies. Characterization of Arundo samples from Europe, Africa, Asia, North America and Australia may elucidate its center of origin.

Lawson, D. M., J. A. Giessow, et al. (2001). The Santa Margarita River Arundo donax Control Project: Development of Methods and Plant Community Response. USGS/USFWS Conference, Pomona, CA, In press. USGS/USFWS Conference, Planning for Biodiversity: Bringing Research and Management Together

A large-scale effort to control the aggressively invasive exotic species Arundo donax in the Santa Margarita River watershed was initiated in 1997. The project was prompted by the need for Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton to address impacts to habitat for federally listed endangered species and wetlands regulated by the Army Corps of Engineers. As of 2000, 27 km of the main stem of the Santa Margarita River had been treated. The methods employed were tested in preliminary trials before widespread implementation, and additional techniques emerged during the course of the project. Although the primary target is A.donax, 14 other invasive exotic species that also threaten riparian ecosystem functions were treated when encountered. Vegetation monitoring transects were established in A.donax removal areas to document the effectiveness of the different treatments and recovery of the plant communities. A.donax was reduced by over 90 percent after the first treatment and accounted for less than 2 percent absolute cover after three follow-up treatments. An experiment testing low cost methods for establishing woody species after A.donax control was conducted. Cuttings were installed with no follow-up maintenance. Approximately 30 percent of Baccharis salicifolia, and large (3-6 m) willow cuttings survived 2 years.

Lodge, D. M. and M. Sagoff (2001). "Are invasive species harming the environment?" CQ Researcher 11(34): 807

Luken, J. O. and J. W. Thieret (1997). Assessment and management of plant invasions. New York, Springer

Mitchell, J. J., Giessow, and J. Giessow (2001). Role of the Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watersheds Weed Management Area in watershed-based exotic plant control and restoration in northern San Diego County. Proceedings, California Exotic Pest Plant Council Symposiums: Achievements and Challenges in Wildland Weed Management. M. Kelly. Berkeley, CA, California Exotic Pest Plant Council 6: 86 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

Mooney, H. A. and E. E. Cleland (2001). "The Evolutionary Impact of Invasive Species." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States 98(10): 5446 (http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/10/5446

http://www.pnas.org).

Since the Age of Exploration began, there has been a drastic breaching of biogeographic barriers that previously had isolated the continental biotas for millions of years. We explore the nature of these recent biotic exchanges and their consequences on evolutionary processes. The direct evidence of evolutionary consequences of the biotic rearrangements is of variable quality, but the results of trajectories are becoming clear as the number of studies increases. There are examples of invasive species altering the evolutionary pathway of native species by competitive exclusion, niche displacement, hybridization, introgression, predation, and ultimately extinction. Invaders themselves evolve in response to their interactions with natives, as well as in response to the new abiotic environment. Flexibility in behavior, and mutualistic interactions, can aid in the success of invaders in their new environment.

Motamed, E. R., Antonia H.B.M. Witje (1998). Rooting by Stem Fragments From Hanging and Upright Stems of Giant Reed (Arundo donax). Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 69-70 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

National Agricultural Library. (2006). "National Invasive Species Information Center (NISIC)." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, 2006, from http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/index.shtml.

gateway to invasive species information; covering Federal, State, local, and international sources.

National Park Service. (2006). "Weed US Plant List." Retrieved November 2, 2006, 2006, from http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/list/a.htm.

List of plants known to be invasive in natural areas in the United States, including Hawaii. The scientific names list includes the associated common names and is viewable in its entirety or in smaller sections.

Newhouser, M., C. Cornwall, et al. (1999). Arundo: A Landowner Handbook. Sonoma CA, Sonoma Ecology Center and California State University, Sacramento, Media Services (http://teamarundo.org/education/index.html#handbook).

This reference guide is intended to educate landowners about the invasive weed Arundo donax, the reasons for eliminating it from watersheds, and techniques for its eradication. We recommend conducting your initial outreach with letters and brochures, and then targeting the handbooks to specific landowners.

Newhouser, M., C. Cornwall, et al. (1999). Controlling Arundo in Your Watershed: A Guide for Organizations. Sonoma CA, Sonoma Ecology Center and California State University, Sacramento, Media Services (http://teamarundo.org/education/org_guide.pdf).

This is a primer for organizations that wish to start an Arundo eradication program in their watershed. These include nonprofits, government agencies, and Resource Conservation Districts, as well as restoration companies working with such organizations. Groups working to control and eliminate other non-native invasive species from riparian areas can also use this guide. Contents: Working with landowners, addressing landowner concerns, negotiating an eradication agreement, working with volunteers and other stakeholders, eradication techniques, prevention and public outreach, Arundo identification, additional resources, landowner agreement. Also includes a sample landowner-contractor agreement.

Newhouser, M., C. Cornwall, et al. (2000). Arundo: Streamside Invader, Sonoma Ecology Center, and Media Services California State University, Sacramento (http://teamarundo.org/education/index.html#handbook).

An introductory brochure appropriate for landowners, nonprofits, or agencies that summarizes the threats Arundo poses to California's streams and rivers, and offers ways to get involved in controlling and eliminating this highly invasive weed.

Peck, G. G. (1998). Hydroponic Growth Characteristics of Arundo donax L. Under Salt Stress. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 71-72 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Pimentel, D. (2000). "Biological Control of Invading Species." Science 289(5481): 869

Price, R. (2005). Regulatory concerns with herbicide use in invasive plant projects. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium. Prevention Reinvention: Protocols, Information, and Partnerships to Stop the Spread of Invasive Plants. G. Skurka. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 9: 7 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php).

Quinn, L. and J. Holt (2003). Invasibility of Experimental Riparian Communities by Arundo donax. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium: Planning Weed Management for Ecosystem Recovery. C. Pirosko. Berkeley, CA, California Invasive Plant Council. 7: 60 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

Invasibility of experimental riparian communities by Arundo donax

Quinn, Lauren and Jodie Holt Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside <lquinn@citrus.ucr.edu>

As invasive plants enter new areas, they necessarily interact with resident plant communities. Several researchers have found a link between the functional diversity of a resident plant community and its invasibility. This study investigates the role of functional diversity in experimentally constructed riparian communities in regulating invasibility by Arundo donax L. Two experiments, differing only in planting density, were conducted simultaneously in an agricultural field at the University of California, Riverside. Three native riparian species (Salix goodingii, Baccharis salicifolia, and Scirpus americanus) representing three putative functional groups, were planted six to a plot in all combinations (seven community treatments). These communities were allowed to establish for 14 months before A. donax rhizomes were introduced into half of the plots in each experiment. A. donax was expected to invade more readily into single-species low-density plots and less readily into three-species high-density plots. Shoot emergence timing and shoot height for A. donax were monitored until senescence. In the first season, A. donax shoot emergence timing was not different when the two experiments were compared. Number of days to shoot emergence was significantly different among community treatments (p=0.008), and was greatest in single- or two-species plots containing B. salicifolia. Shoot growth rate was significantly greater (p=0.04) in the low-density experiment than in the high-density experiment, and was lower in single- or two-species plots containing B. salicifolia than in all other plot types. A. donax shoots emerged quickly and grew rapidly in "diverse" plots containing all three species. These data suggest that the establishment of A. donax is influenced by community composition, and that diverse communities may be more invasible than some simpler ones. The poor performance of A. donax in plots containing B. salicifolia may provide support for use of this species in riparian restoration following A. donax removal.

Ramstetter, J. M. (2001). "Invasive Species in a Changing World." Environment 43(9): 43

Rauterkus, M. and J. Holt (2003). Seasonal Activity and Impacts of Arundo donax. Proceedings of the California Invasive Plant Council Symposium: Planning Weed Management for Ecosystem Recovery. C. Pirosko. Kings Beach, California, California Invasive Plant Council. 7: 61 (http://www.cal-ipc.org/symposia/archive/index.php#2002).

The seasonal physiological activity of Arundo donax and its impact on riparian systems was studied using both common garden experiments and a field survey. A. donax is a perennial species that exhibits a high rate of growth. To quantify its seasonal physiological activity, A. donax was collected from the northern, central, and southern regions of California and planted in a common garden experiment at the University of California at Riverside. The photosynthetic rate of A. donax was measured twice a month for eight months. A. donax's average carbon assimilation rate varied from a low of 16.713 µmol CO2/m2/s to a high of 39.358 µmol CO2/m2/s and, to this point, appears to correlate (R2 = 0.8446) more closely with the low temperature on the day that it was measured rather than the high temperature or calendar date. To test the hypothesis that A. donax alters the abiotic conditions of the environment , which in a manner that favors its own success, a field survey was conducted along two watersheds in southern California. Six permanent transects were set up perpendicular to the river at each site. Monthly measurements of soil temperature, soil moisture, vegetation cover, and light intensity displayed little difference between points with and without the presence of A. donax. Thus, data collected to date indicates that A. donax can remain physiologically active throughout the year. Research is ongoing to identify its physiological impacts in riparian habitats.

Reichard, S. H. and P. White (2001). "Horticulture as a Pathway of Invasive Plant Introductions in the United States." BioScience 51(2): 103

Ricciardi, A., W. W. M. Steiner, et al. (2000). "Toward a Global Information System for Invasive Species." BioScience 50(3): 239

Rossman, A. Y. (2001). "A Special Issue on Global Movement of Invasive Plants and Fungi." BioScience 51(2): 93

Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watersheds Weed Management Area. (2006, 2004). "Arundo Mapping Project." Retrieved Nov. 3, 2006, from http://smslrwma.org/invasives/Arundo/map.html.

Distribution maps for Southern California and the Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watersheds in both JPEG and ArcView GIS file formats; Poster of mapping methodology for Arundo.

Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watersheds Weed Management Area. (2006). "Biology of Arundo donax." Retrieved Nov. 3, 2006, from http://smslrwma.org/invasives/Arundo/biology.html.

Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watersheds Weed Management Area. (2006). "Invasive Non-Native Plants - Plant Information, Distribution Maps, Mapping Methodology, Control Projects, and Control Methods." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://smslrwma.org/invasives/index.html.

Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Watersheds Weed Management Area. (2006). "Summary of Arundo Control Methods." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, from http://smslrwma.org/invasives/Arundo/controlmethods.html.

Schmitz, D. C. and D. Simberloff (2001). "Needed: A National Center for Biological Invasions." Issues in Science and Technology 17(4): 57

Schoenig, S. E., Ed. (2005). California noxious & invasive weed action plan. Sacramento, Calif., California Dept. of Food and Agriculture (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxweedinfo/pdfs/noxious%5Fweed%5Fplan.pdf ).

Sher, A. A., D. L. Marshall, et al. (2000). "Competition between native Populus deltoides and invasive Tamarix ramosissima and the impliations for reestablishing flooding disturbance." Conservation Biology 14(6): 1744

Research on floodplain ecology in the southwestern US indicates that the native cottonwood species Populus deltoides is sufficiently dominant to withstand the potential introduction of the invasive species saltcedar, or Tamarix ramosissima. Although both are responsive to natural flooding cycles, Populus was found to have superior competitive ability.

Simberloff, D. and D. R. Strong (2000). "Exotic Species Seriously Threaten Our Environment." Chronicle of Higher Education 47(2): B20

Sonoma Ecology Center. "Team Arundo del Norte Arundo donax Fact Sheet ", from http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/arundo_facts.html.

Spencer, D. F., G. G. Ksander, et al. (2005). "Spatial and temporal variation in RGR and leaf quality of a clonal riparian plant: Arundo donax " Aquatic Botany 81(1): 27-36 (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4F-4FBFR26-1&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F2005&_alid=477803845&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4973&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=5189927&md5=827a272877992722bf0c93744779ccf6).

Arundo donax L. is a tall perennial reed classified as an emergent aquatic plant. In California, it has invaded riparian zones, where it acts as a transformer species. Because plant growth and leaf quality influence the effectiveness of management techniques, we sought to determine if these characters varied temporally and spatially in a northern California population of A. donax. Tissue C and N content and C:N ratio varied during the growing season. Leaf N was higher in spring and in plants that were closer to a stream. It was significantly negatively related to the clump's distance from the stream but not related to its elevation relative to the stream. Plants near the stream produced taller stems with more leaves per stem than those more distant from the stream. RGR differed across time and space. It was highest in spring prior to the appearance of flowers on a few stems that were >1 year old within the clumps. Decline in RGR as the growing season progressed coincided with the appearance of branches and flowers on stems <1 year old on a few plants within the studied population. RGR was significantly related to the N content and C:N ratio of leaves on mature stems (>1 year old). This implies that the decrease in stem growth reflected changes in nutrient availability within the entire A. donax clump and not just in the growing stems (<1 year old). These findings have implications for timing of management techniques.

Spencer, D. F., P.-S. Liow, et al. (2006). "Estimating Arundo donax shoot biomass " Aquatic Botany 84(3): 272-276 (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4F-4J2TSV5-2&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2006&_alid=477796117&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=4973&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=5189927&md5=261a92e3376c6863ada9c13356455bcb).

We developed an equation for estimating Arundo donax shoot dry weight from shoot length. The equation, shoot dry weight (g) = 14.254 (standard error = ±0.275) × shoot height2 (m), was as effective at explaining a high proportion of total variation in shoot dry weight (R2 = 0.90) as more complicated equations containing additional morphometric parameters. Tested against two independent datasets, the equation provided accurate estimates of dry weight for shoots ranging from 0.3 to 7.06 m height (dataset 1, P < 0.0001, R2 = 0.87, N = 29; dataset 2, P < 0.0001, R2 = 0.82, N = 192). The equation provides aboveground biomass estimates from stem counts and heights more rapidly than harvest methods.

Stein, E. D. (1998). Invasive Weed Control as Mitigaton: A Shifting Paradigm. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 27-32 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Stelljes, K. B. (2001). "Research Off the Beaten Path." Agricultural Research 49(4): 14-17 (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/apr01/path0401.htm).

Article and photos describing researchers' (UC Berkeley ecologist Thomas L. Dudley, ARS entomologists Raymond I. Carruthers and Alan A. Kirk, and ARS plant pathologist Timothy L. Widmer) search in Nepal for biological control agents for Arundo donax, tamarisk, and salt cedar.

Tracy, J. L., C. Jack DeLoach (1998). Suitability of Classical Biological Control for Giant Reed (Arundo donax). Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 73-110 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Trumbo, J. (1998). Comparison of three methods of glyphosate application and their effects in the control of Arundo donax. Sacramento, California Department of Fish and Game

Trumbo, J. (2000). "First Things First: Making Sure Pesticide Regulations Don't Derail Your Invasive Weed Projects." Noxious Times 3(2): 4-5 (http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ipc/noxioustimes/noxtimes_archives.htm).

Tsutsui, N. D., A. V. Suarez, et al. (2000). "Reduced genetic variation and the success of an invasive species." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States 97(11): 5948 (http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/11/5948

http://www.pnas.org).

Despite the severe ecological and economic damage caused by introduced species, factors that allow invaders to become successful often remain elusive. Of invasive taxa, ants are among the most widespread and harmful. Highly invasive ants are often unicolonial, forming supercolonies in which workers and queens mix freely among physically separate nests. By reducing costs associated with territoriality, unicolonial species can attain high worker densities, allowing them to achieve interspecific dominance. Here we examine the behavior and population genetics of the invasive Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) in its native and introduced ranges, and we provide a mechanism to explain its success as an invader. Using microsatellite markers, we show that a population bottleneck has reduced the genetic diversity of introduced populations. This loss is associated with reduced intraspecific aggression among spatially separate nests, and leads to the formation of interspecifically dominant supercolonies. In contrast, native populations are more genetically variable and exhibit pronounced intraspecific aggression. Although reductions in genetic diversity are generally considered detrimental, these findings provide an example of how a genetic bottleneck can lead to widespread ecological success. In addition, these results provide insights into the origin and evolution of unicoloniality, which is often considered a challenge to kin selection theory.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2006). "National Invasive Species Council." Retrieved Nov. 2, 2006, 2006, from http://invasivespecies.gov/.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service. (2001). "More Troublesome Water Weeds Targeted by Researchers." Retrieved Nov. 3, 2006, from http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/nov01/water1101.htm.

Vartanian, V. (1998). Destructive Nature of Arundo and Tamarisk. Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 7-13 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Waage, J. K. and J. K. Reaser (2001). "A Global Strategy to Defeat Invasive Species." Science 292(5521): 1486

Wang, A. (1998). Groundwater nitrate levels as promoters of Arundo donax invasion. Environmental science : policy and practice. T. Dudley and K. Kennedy. Berkeley, CA Senior Research Seminar, Environmental Sciences Group Major, University of California: 507-515

Weeds, F. I. C. f. t. M. o. N. a. E. (1998). National Weed Strategy for Invasive Plant Management

Wijte, A. H. B. M., T. Mizutani, et al. (2005). "Temperature and endogenous factors cause seasonal patterns in rooting by stem fragments of the invasive giant reed, Arundo donax (Poaceae)." International journal of plant sciences 166(3): 507-517

Zembal, R. (1998). Habitat for Threatened Habitat and Endangered Species: Quarantine Areas or Control Exotic Weeds? Arundo and Salt Cedar: The Deadly Duo, A Workshop on Combating the Threat from Arundo and Salt Cedar. C. E. Bell. Ontario, CA, University of California Cooperative Extension, Imperial County: 15-20 (http://teamarundo.org/ecology_impacts/Proc98/proc98_index.html).

Zembal, R. a. S. H. (2000). "Environmental Assessment of the Santa Ana Watershed Program."

The Santa Ana River (SAR) watershed encompasses about 3,200 square miles, comprising the largest river system in coastal southern California (Figure 1). Human development and activities in the watershed have greatly reduced the floodplain and associated habitats and deleteriously affected the river's natural function and processes.

The purpose of the Santa Ana River Watershed Program is to gradually restore as much of the natural function of the river as possible, thereby maximizing the natural resources supported by this river system. This report describes the current Santa Ana River Watershed Program in 2000-2002, which focused on the control of invasive weeds especially Arundo donax (giant reed) and Tamarix (saltcedar) as well as the restoration of wetland habitat, management of endangered species, and public